REGIONAL OVERVIEW

When UNSCR 1540 was adopted, the United States, Mexico, Chile, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina had already taken significant steps to prevent the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapon-related materials; however, the counterproliferation activities of other countries in this region vary. Of the 35 states in the region, only two (Saint Lucia and Haiti) have not submitted initial national reports, but have provided information for the 1540 Matrix.

NBC Capabilities

While very few states in this region are of direct proliferation concern, the existence of well-established and highly sophisticated human and drug trafficking networks could be exploited to move NBC weapon-related materials. All three North American states (United States, Canada and Mexico) have advanced industries in NBC fields for peaceful purposes and the United States is a recognized nuclear weapons state. The United States also had biological and chemical weapons programs before joining the 1972 BTWC and the 1993 CWC, respectively.

The United States maintains the world's second-largest nuclear arsenal with approximately 5113 warheads and several thousand more awaiting dismantlement.[1] The country also has the world's largest number of nuclear power plants with 104 power reactors.[2] Additionally, the United States operates 41 research reactors. There are currently 97 uranium mines scattered throughout the western United States, supplying a significant amount of material for the U.S. civil and military nuclear programs. The United States' infrastructure of civil and military nuclear facilities contributes to a sizeable stockpile of uranium and plutonium (Pu). It currently possesses about 91,900[3] kg of military Pu stockpiles and about 365,595 kg of unseparated civil Pu. The military stockpiles also contain about 490,000kg of HEU, while about 124,000 kg of HEU is in excess and in civilian programs.[4]

The United States possesses what is believed to be the second largest stockpile of chemical weapons, which should be eliminated by 2012, and maintains a significant chemical industry including facilities operating with CWC Schedule 2 and 3 chemicals. Additionally, the United States has a substantial bio-defense program working with deadly pathogens. While this research is not illegal under the BTWC, there have been concerns about the fact that the United States had been keeping the program secret. The United States still maintains a sizable biotechnology sector, including advanced research in the biosciences and declared BL4 facilities.

Canada operates 18 power reactors and eight research reactors, with another three plants in various stages of planning and construction. Canada currently possesses 122,469 kg of irradiated Pu and 1,224 kg of HEU. Canada is the second largest producer of natural uranium in the world (20% of the world supply from mines in 2009), while its uranium conversion facilities have the ability to produce 10,500 metric tons of uranium hexafluoride (UF6) per year.[5] Canada, as well as the United States, is a considerable exporter of NBC-related dual-use technologies, making it a potential target for procurement efforts for such items. Over the years, it has exported the Canadian designed CANDU type nuclear reactor and related technology to many countries. Canada possesses a substantial bio-defense program and its biotechnology industry maintains BL4 facilities. It also has as a significant chemical industry, including facilities operating with CWC Schedule 2 and 3 chemicals. Canada is a member of both the CWC and the BTWC and is not suspected of pursuing any biological or chemical weapons programs.

In Latin America, both Brazil and Argentina pursued covert nuclear weapons programs in the 1970s and 1980s. They both joined the NPT in the mid-1990s and now abide by several agreements limiting their nuclear activities to peaceful purposes. However, both states have advanced civil nuclear power industries and can enrich uranium to use as nuclear power fuel. In early 2011, Brazil announced that it would expand uranium enrichment at its Resende plant to an industrial scale within a year.[6] More than 20 years after its initial shutdown, Argentina restarted enrichment at its Pilcaniyeu plant in September 2010.[7] Argentina currently operates two power reactors and five research reactors, while Brazil operates two power reactors and four research reactors. Brazil has also undertaken a program to construct five attack submarines based on the French Scorpene submarine, one of which will be nuclear powered.[8]

In February 2008, Argentina and Brazil announced the establishment of a joint commission to explore nuclear cooperation between the two states. The commission explored the development of a joint nuclear reactor to meet increasing electrical demands, as well as work on designing a bilateral project to explore aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, including the establishment of a joint company to undertake uranium enrichment.[9] In January 2011, Argentina and Brazil signed an agreement to jointly develop two multi-purpose research reactors.[10] Brazil possesses the sixth largest uranium reserves in the world, while Argentina possesses only limited uranium deposits and its mining activity has declined substantially since 1997.[11]

Peru maintains two nuclear research reactors and has plans to construct a power reactor. It does not possess any HEU or Pu. While Peru does not have a significant nuclear mining industry, explorations have discovered 78 target points with approximately 3,650 tons of uranium deposits in its southeastern region. Venezuela has also expressed an interest in a nuclear power industry. Since 2005, when it first announced its intention to pursue nuclear energy, speculations have emerged in the press that that Venezuela intended to develop nuclear weapons capability. Suspicions were recently exacerbated when the country signed nuclear cooperation agreements with Russia and Iran. So far, the results of those agreements have not yielded much activity in Venezuela, and the country's only nuclear research reactor was shut down in 1994.

There is currently one operational research reactor in Chile and one temporarily shutdown; the country does not have any immediate plans to build more. It once possessed close to 20kg of HEU, both in the reactor cores and stored for the reactors. However, in February 2010, as part of its Global Threat Reduction Initiative program, the United States removed 13.6 kilograms of HEU spent fuel from the La Reina Nuclear Center, 4.3 kilograms of slightly irradiated HEU and 0.3 kilograms of fresh fuel from the Lo Aguirre Nuclear Center, and more than 400 U.S.-origin radiological sources from other locations.[12] In 2006, Chile's RECH-1 reactor core was converted from HEU to LEU fuel. In April 2010, the RECH-2 reactor was shut down.[13]

Chile has uranium deposits, but according to the World Energy Council, these have not been mined. Colombia maintains one nuclear research reactor, but it does not possess any HEU.

Mexico has a well-established nuclear infrastructure with two research reactors and three power reactors, meeting approximately 5% of its total energy needs. Mexico possesses over 10kg of HEU in reactor fuel, and at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, DC, in 2010, Mexican president pledged to convert the Central Nuclear Laguna Verde research reactor to LEU in cooperation with the United States and Canada.[14] While there are no uranium mines in Mexico, 2,000 tons of uranium reserves have been discovered. Mexico also has a significant chemical industry, comprising both CWC Schedule 2 and 3 facilities.

The Central American states are not known to have industries that could provide materials for NBC weapon capabilities, nor do they have civilian nuclear infrastructures. With the exception of Cuba, Caribbean countries do not have industries that handle NBC materials or technologies. Cuba has an advanced bio-industry, giving it the potential to manufacture biological weapons agents. The United States has alleged that Cuba possessed a clandestine biological weapons program and has fostered the international proliferation of this technology. The allegations of a bioweapons program in Cuba, however, have not been confirmed. For more information on Cuba's NBC capabilities see the NTI Cuba Country Profile.

Export and Border Controls

Relatively weak border controls make it easier for terrorists to operate in the Latin-American sub-region. For instance, the 2006 CA-4 Border Control Agreement between El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua allows individuals to pass between the borders of these states without going through additional checkpoints or border security. The Panama Canal represents another potential security concern because of its importance in shipping goods and its well-studied potential vulnerability to terrorist attacks. During 2010, 14,230 vessels used the Canal.[15]

Several states in Central America and the Caribbean serve as transshipment points for narcotics and other illicit trafficking, which could be utilized for WMD proliferation activities. This concern has prompted the United States and other countries to work actively with states in the region to reduce the potential threat.

In South America, Brazil hosts one of the world's busiest ports, with approximately 2.446 million container traffic equivalent units (TEUs) per year. Brazil is a transshipment point for narcotics and weapons smuggling, and has the potential for other illicit trafficking, increasing the likelihood that illicit trafficking networks could contribute to WMD proliferation. According to the U.S. Congressional Research Service, Brazil falls short in its efforts to fight terrorism. Chilean authorities are also monitoring links between Chile's Iquique Free Zone, which is one of the largest duty-free commercial port centers of South America, and the Tri-Border Area (Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay). Sources indicate that trade links between those two areas are increasing, which could provide the opportunity for illicit activities.

The United States provides assistance to Latin American countries in strengthening their counterterrorism capabilities through programs administered by the Department of State, Department of Homeland Security, and Department of Energy. The Department of State administers an Anti-Terrorism Assistance (ATA) program, Export Control and Related Border Security (EXBS) program, Counterterrorism Financing (CTF) program, and Terrorist Interdiction Program (TIP). The EXBS program helps countries develop export and border control systems in order to prevent states and terrorist organizations from acquiring weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and destabilizing conventional weapons. The FY2011 budget request for EXBS included $7.95 million for assistance to Argentina, Brazil, Caribbean, Chile, Mexico, Panama, and regional anti-terrorist programs. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) coordinates with ten Latin American ports in Argentina, the Bahamas, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Jamaica, and Panama participate in the DHS Container Security Initiative (CSI) program. The Department of Energy administers a Megaports Initiative that actively deploys and monitors radiation detection equipment to detect and interdict illicit trafficking in nuclear and radioactive materials in ports in the Bahamas, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Mexico, and Panama.[16]

While Mexico has been working on the legislation to improve its export controls, Mexico's border controls remain a significant problem. Narcotics smuggling as well as human trafficking are just some of the issues that confront U.S.-Mexico border security. Since 2006, violence along the Mexican-U.S. border has escalated immensely. Approximately 23,000 people have been killed in narcotics-related violence alone. Also since 2006, about 87 percent of the firearms seized and traced by Mexican authorities were purchased in the United States. Most weapons are high-caliber and high-power weapons, including AK-47s and AR-15 semiautomatic rifles. Mexico and the United States have collaborated to prevent smuggling and violence in Mexico's northern and southern borders. The United States is also assisting Mexico with border security by providing training programs covering non-intrusive equipment inspection, detecting weapons of mass destruction, and identifying fraudulent documents.

Beginning in 2007, the IAEA established a regional nuclear security assistance program to increase the awareness and capacity of countries in Latin America for the prevention, detection and response to malicious acts involving nuclear and other radioactive materials or facilities and illicit trafficking of nuclear and other radioactive materials. Latin American countries involved in the IAEA program include Argentina, Belize; Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.[17] As a part of the program, in 2009, the IAEA undertook a technical cooperation project to build human resource capacity in Latin American nations for developing a sustainable nuclear security infrastructure. Training in this area included: Prevention and Response to Illicit Trafficking and Nuclear Threats; Safety and Security of Radiation Sources; Security of Nuclear and Radioactive Materials; and Physical Protection of nuclear facilities.[18]

Internal Security and Terrorism Threats

Although many Latin American countries are plagued with excessive criminal and suspected terrorist presence within their borders, some of these countries have been reluctant to adopt specific antiterrorism legislation due to difficulty in defining terrorism in a way that does not implicate political activities either in the past or present.

Mexico is a potential transit route for terrorists entering the United States. Consequently, Mexican efforts in counterterrorism are increasing. In March 2005, Mexico, United States and Canada launched the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP), which contained 10 security-related objectives, including institutionalized mechanisms for information sharing between Mexico and the United States. However in August 2009, it was announced that the SPP was cancelled. The United States and Mexico have also begun negotiations on methods to prevent terrorists from utilizing Mexican seaports to ship illegal materials, detect nuclear and radioactive material if shipped, and intercept harmful material before it could be used against the United States or U.S. allies. As a part of these activities, in late 2010, the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) organization sponsored and administered the first ever Mexican Customs Investigator Training (MEXCIT) program to help agents more effectively fight crime along the southern border and within Mexico. The program was part of a U.S. commitment to partner with Mexico to confront activities that threaten national security.[19]

Many states in Central America and the Caribbean are utilized as offshore financial centers for money laundering, raising the prospect of financing for activities related to NBC-related proliferation or terrorism. According to the 2010 edition of the Anti-Money Laundering Atlas, Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras and Nicaragua are among nations that pose rising risks in the global fight against money laundering and related security threats.[20] By cooperating with the United States, Panama has developed several new counterterrorism initiatives, including the malafide traveler interdiction operation at Tocumen Airport. Panama also bolstered counterterrorism efforts by hosting the seventh regular session for the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism in 2007, which featured participants from the United States, Panama, Colombia, and Brazil.

Although Colombia cooperates with the United States in counterterrorism initiatives, terrorist groups still reside within the country. In March 2008, there were reports that the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) were attempting to buy depleted uranium, adding to concerns that terrorists in the region might become active in NBC proliferation. Ecuador also faces infiltration of terrorist groups on its northern border with Colombia. Over 30 secret FARC camps have been discovered in the northern part of the country. Furthermore, limited amounts of arms and ammunitions, some from official Venezuelan stockpiles, have found their way to Colombian terrorist groups.

Counterterrorism activities in Peru are mainly devoted to keeping the Shining Path, an internal rebel group, from regaining the stature it enjoyed in the 1980s and 1990s. The FARC have also been reported to use northern areas of Peru's borders for refuge, arms purchases, and recruitment efforts. While Paraguay remains cooperative on counterterrorism measures, the lack of strong anti-terrorist and money laundering legislation prevents Paraguay from taking necessary action. The United States also provides training to Paraguayan judges, prosecutors, and police on investigating and prosecuting individuals involved in money laundering, bulk cash smuggling, and terrorism.

Brazil's overall commitment to combating terrorism was undermined by the government's failure to strengthen its legal counterterrorism framework. The U.S. has worked with Brazil to improve its counterterrorism capabilities and to implement the Container Security Initiative (CSI) at the port of Santos. In 2010, Brazil and the United States signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement and tentatively approved an Open Skies agreement that would ensure aviation security.[21]

The Tri-Border Area (TBA) is the rural convergence of borders of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, formed by the cities of Puerto Igauzu (Argentina); Foz do Iguazu (Brazil), and Ciudad del Este (Paraguay). Concerns have been raised that Hezbollah and Hamas have conducted fundraising initiatives in the region. This region serves as a haven for arms smuggling, money laundering, illicit trafficking, and fundraising for extremist organizations - including Islamist terrorist groups. In 2002, at the invitation of these countries, the United States joined them in forming the "3+1 Group on Tri-border Area Security." It was created to enhance the capabilities of South American states to combat cross-border crime and thwart potential terrorist fundraising opportunities. In 2007, the group established a Joint Intelligence Center to combat trans-border criminal organizations in the TBA.[22] However, despite the group's formation, the difficulties of law enforcement in the Tri-Border Region area remain a regional security concern.

International Treaties and Agreements

For the most part, states in the region adhere to all the major international nonproliferation treaties and agreements. All states in the region are parties to the NPT, BTWC and CWC.

With the exception of the United States and Canada, all the other states in the region are members of the Latin American Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone treaty (Treaty of Tlatelolco), which prohibits the development, placement, transit, and testing of nuclear devices on the territories of the Latin American and Caribbean states. The United States has ratified both protocols to the Treaty. All the nine countries with civilian nuclear facilities (Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, the United States, and Venezuela) have ratified the CPPNM. As of March 2011, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, and Peru count among the 54 states parties to the Nuclear Terrorism Convention. It took substantial time for the small Caribbean states, to submit UNSCR 1540 reports (Saint Lucia and Haiti have not yet done so), which underscored the need for assistance in implementing Resolution 1540 in full. Given the small size of these states and their need to address pressing socio-economic problems, their governments have few resources to invest in nonproliferation measures. Within the region, the Bahamas, Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Mexico have requested assistance.

As noted above, the United States helps Latin American countries strengthen their counterterrorism capabilities through various programs, such as the Anti-Terrorism Assistance (ATA) program, Export Control and Related Border Security (EXBS) program, Counterterrorism Financing (CTF) program, and Terrorist Interdiction Program (TIP).[23]

In February 2010, representatives from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico, Panama, Dominican Republic, United States, and the International Civil Aviation Organization, met in Mexico City to draft and sign the Joint Declaration of Aviation Security. The declaration is an international framework of rules that strengthen information sharing between countries and share best practices activities such as in threat detection, screening, and baggage screening.[24]

REGIONAL ADHERENCE TO NONPROLIFERATION INSTRUMENTS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Regional Organizations and Cooperation

The Organization of American States (OAS) has an important role to play in the implementation of UNSCR 1540. The OAS created the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE) in 1999 to facilitate cooperation on terrorism issues and disrupt terrorist funding mechanisms. The CICTE already addresses many issues related to Resolution 1540. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States, OAS approved the resolution "Strengthening Hemispheric Cooperation to Prevent, Combat, and Eliminate Terrorism." The CICTE has provided over $5 million in aid for counterterrorism and capacity-building assistance in the region. It advises the 15 OAS member states on how to meet their obligations under UN Resolution 1373 (on denying support for terrorists), and the 13 international conventions on terrorism. In 2010, CICTE experts trained more than 3,500 employees and conducted more than 100 assistance projects. In 2011, the CICTE Secretariat will continue to support activities related to the implementation of Resolution 1540. The secretariat plans to implement, together with the UNODA and the Expert Group of the Committee on Resolution 1540, a pilot project to define the specific needs and challenges related to physical protection and control of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) related material, and to customize training to improve the structure of prevention that member states undertake to mitigate the use of CBRN materials by non-state actors within their borders.[25]

Regional cooperation among states in the Americas region is essential to the successful implementation of UNSCR 1540. The OAS has already established several frameworks that can be utilized and expanded for this purpose. The OAS, working in collaboration with member states, can address the challenges of the Tri-Border Region, border security, and terrorism to meet Resolution 1540 requirements. Several regional seminars have been held in the region, including three organized by the 1540 Committee.

A workshop on the implementation of UNSCR 1540 in Santo Domingo on February 28-29, 2008, suggested that the implementation of UNSCR 1540 should address social and economic concerns to realize objectives that satisfy Resolution 1540 goals and the more pressing needs of Caribbean states. Since then a number of workshops have been held to assist these states in implementing the resolution. (See list of workshops, meetings and seminars below). By focusing on issues such as emergency management and disaster response, port/maritime security, and illicit trafficking, implementation of UNSCR 1540 benefits more citizens and increases the likelihood of sustained cooperation by Caribbean states.[26]

In July 2003, following an assessment security threats facing the Caribbean, CARICOM states established the CARICOM Ministerial Subcommittee on Resource Mobilization for Crime and Security. In June 2008, the CARICOM Caucus of Ambassadors proposed a regional approach to the implementation of the Resolution. The CARICOM-UNSCR 1540 Implementation Programme provides a number of services including the training and resources necessary to detect, identify, and prevent transfers that violate export control laws and regulations.[27]

1540-RELATED REGIONAL ACTIVITIES

2011-2010

• IAEA, National Training Course on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials and Facilities Mexico City, Mexico, February 7-18, 2011.

• IAEA, CS: INSServ follow up mission Montevideo, Uruguay December 6-10, 2010.

• UNIDO, Regional Facilitation Event for UNSCR 1540 Lima, Peru November 9-11, 2010.

• IAEA, INSServ mission to Bolivia La Paz, BoliviaNovember 7-12, 2010.

• IAEA, International Training Course on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Nuclear Facilities Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA, October 17-November 5, 2010.

• IAEA, Regional Seminar on Combating Illicit Trafficking in Nuclear and other Radioactive Material, Bogota, Colombia, October 19-22, 2010.

• IAEA, Workshop on Source Control, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, September 27-Oct 1, 2010.

• IAEA, CS: coordination meeting with Mexico authorities on preparation for practical field exercise, in the framework of nuclear security measures at the XVI Pan American Games in Guadalajara 2011, Mexico City, Mexico, September 6-8, 2010.

• IAEA, Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Facilities, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 16-27, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, ICAO/LACAC Regional Seminar on Machine Readable Travel Documents (MRTDs), Biometrics and Security Standards for the Americas, Montevideo, Uruguay, July 7-8, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, Southern Cone Sub-regional Workshop on Best Practices in Maritime Security and the Implementation of the ISPS Code, Montevideo, Uruguay, June 28 — July 1, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, South American Sub-regional Workshop on the APEC Manual of Maritime Security Drills and Exercises, Montevideo, Uruguay, June 22-25, 2010.

• OPCW, Eleventh Meeting of Representatives of National Authorities of States Parties implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in Latin America and the Caribbean, La Paz, Bolivia, June 15 to 17, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, First Specialized OAS Capacity-building Workshop on Border Controls, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, April 12 — 16, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, Crisis Management Exercise (CME) on Maritime and Port Security, St. Kitts and Nevis and The Bahamas, March 3-5, and March 29-31, 2010.

• OAS/CICTE, Exercise Bio-Shield: Crisis Management Simulation Exercise in Response to a Bio-terrorist Attack, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, March 10-12, 2010.

• DOE/NNSA, Latin America & Caribbean Regional Workshop on the Megaports Initiative, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, February 9-11, 2010.

• IAEA, NTC on Radiation Detection for Front Line Officers, in preparation for the 2010IX South American Games in Medellin, Colombia, Medellin, Colombia, February 15-19, 2010.

2009

• IAEA, Regional Workshop on Strengthening Research Reactor Safety and the National Nuclear Safety Infrastructure,Argonne, USA, December 7-11, 2009.
• IAEA, CS - Design Basis Threat Workshop Mexico City, Mexico, December 7-9, 2009.
• IAEA, NTC - Response to Criminal or Unauthorized Acts involving Radioactive Material & Field Exercise on D&R, Montevideo, Uruguay, November 30-December 9, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, Bioterrorism Exercise, Cancun, Mexico, November 11-14, 2009.
• UNODA, Workshop on the Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004), San Jose, Costa Rica, September 8-11, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, Bioterrorism Preliminary Visit, Cancun, Mexico, August 17-21, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, Caribbean Sub-regional Workshop on Best Practices in Port Security and Implementation of the ISPS Code, Point Lisas, Trinidad, July 27-30, 2009.
• IAEA, Regional Training Course on Security in the Transport of Radioactive Material, Lima, June 8-12, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, CICTE Port Security Training, Santo Tomas de Castillo, Guatemala, 24 April - May 8, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, CICTE Port Security Training, Puerto Cortes, Honduras, April 14-22, 2009.
• OAS/CICTE, CICTE Sub-regional Workshop for the Caribbean on Best Practices in Port Security and Implementation of the ISPS Code, Nassau, Bahamas, March 30 - April 4, 2009.
• IAEA, Regional Seminar on Nuclear Security, Safety & Safeguards, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic February 10-12, 2009.

2005-2008

• UNIDO, Workshop on Implementing Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004) for MERCOSUR States, São Paulo, Brazil, 24-28 November 2008.
• UNODA, Meeting of Working Group on Terrorism Financing and Money Laundering (WGTM), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, October 13-14, 2008.
• OPCW, Sub-regional seminar on the Implementation of Article VI of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Mexico City, Mexico, August 2008.
• IAEA, Seminar on Nuclear Material Accounting and Control at Facilities, Mexico City, Mexico, July 2008.
• Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Regional Meeting of Representatives of National Authorities and Parliaments in Latin America and the Caribbean, Buenos Aires, Argentina, July 2008.
• DTRA, Global Perspective of the Proliferation Landscape: An Assessment of Tools and Policy Problems, Monterey, California, United States, 10-12 June 2008.
• UNODC, Ministerial Conference on International Cooperation Against Terrorism and Organized Crime, Panama City, Panama, 26-29 May 2008.
• OAS, Workshop on Implementation of Resolution 1540 (2004), Buenos Aires, Argentina, 13-14 May 2008.
• IAEA, Arrangements for Detection, Interdiction and Response in Criminal or Unauthorized Acts Involving Nuclear and Other Radioactive Material; Field Exercise on Criminal Act in a Venue Involving Radioactive Material, Lima, Peru, April 2008.
• IAEA, Response to Detection Alarms Involving Nuclear and Other Radioactive Materials, Associated with Major Public Events, Lima, Peru, April 2008.
• UNODC, Technical Assistance Mission to Review National Legislation to Implement United Nations Anti-terrorism Instruments, Guatemala City, Guatemala, 10-13 March 2008.
• Canada/Henry L. Stimson Center, Responding to Resolution 1540 (2004) with Development and Capacity-building Assistance in the Caribbean, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, February 28-29, 2008.
• OAS/CICTE, Customs and Immigration security assessment CBP, Bridgetown, Barbados, January 29-31, 2008.
• INTERPOL, 19th Americas Regional Conference, Bogota, Colombia, September 2007.
• United Nations seminar on Implementing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004) in the Caribbean, Press Release, Kingston, Jamaica, May 2007.
• Organization of American States (OAS) Special Meeting on Combating the Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Weapons, and their Means of Delivery, Washington, D.C., United States, December 2006.
• United Nations seminar on Implementing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004) in Latin America and the Caribbean, Press Release, Lima, Peru, November 2006.
• Argentina-United Kingdom 1540 Seminar for Latin America and the Caribbean, Buenos Aires, Argentina, September 2005.
• Seminar on the Implementation of Resolution 1540 in Latin America and the Caribbean, La Antigua, Guatemala, June 2005.

REFERENCES

1540 National Reports

• 1540 Committee, National Reports, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.

1540 Matrices

• 1540 Committee, List of Matrices of Member States, as Approved by the 1540 Committee, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.

National Legislation

• 1540 Committee, List of legislative documents by submitting UN Member States, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.

Offers/Requests for Assistance

• 1540 Committee, Requests for Assistance, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.
• 1540 Committee, Assistance from Member States, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.

Treaty Participation

• The International Organizations and Nonproliferation Program, The Inventory of International Nonproliferation Organizations and Regimes, Monterey: James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, www.nti.org.
• "Convention on Nuclear Safety," International Conventions & Agreements, Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, www.iaea.org.
• "Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material," International Conventions & Agreements, Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, www.iaea.org.
• "Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management," International Conventions & Agreements, Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, www.iaea.org.
• "Multilateral Arms Regulation and Disarmament Agreements," New York: United Nations Organization, http://disarmament.un.org.
• United Nations Treaty Collection, "Extract from the Report of the Secretary-General on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (DOC. A/62/160)," New York: United Nations Organization, http://untreaty.un.org.

Information on 1540-related Regional Activities

• 1540 Committee, Chairperson's Statements and Outreach Activities, New York: United Nations Organization, www.un.org.
• "IAEA Meetings and Conferences," Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, www-pub.iaea.org.
• "Calendar of Events," The Hague: Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, www.opcw.org.
• "Regional Conferences," Lyon: The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), www.interpol.int.

General Information

• BBC Monitoring, Country Profiles, London: British Broadcasting Corporation, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk.
• "The World Factbook," Washington, D.C.: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Updated March 2011, www.cia.gov.
• "Background Notes," Washington, D.C.: U.S. State Department, www.state.gov.
• "Corruptions Perception Index 2010," Berlin, Germany: Transparency International, 2010, www.transparency.org.

Information on NBC Capabilities

• "Country Profiles," Washington, D.C.: Nuclear Threat Initiative, www.nti.org.
• "Country Briefings," London: World Nuclear Association, www.world-nuclear.org.
• "Country Nuclear Power Profiles," Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2003, www-pub.iaea.org.
• "Nuclear Research Reactors in the World," Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, www.iaea.or.at.
• "The Model Nuclear Inventory: Accountability is Democracy, Transparency is Security," New York: Reaching Critical Will, 2007, www.reachingcriticalwill.org.
• David Albright and Kimberly Kramer, "Civil HEU Watch: Tacking Inventories of Civil Highly Enriched Uranium," Washington, D.C.: Institute for Science and International Security, August 2005, www.isis-online.org.
• "Civil Plutonium Produced in Power Reactors," Global Stocks of Nuclear Explosive Materials, Washington, D.C.: Institute for Science and International Security, 2005, p. 3, http://isis-online.org. 

Information Pertaining to Terrorism

• Office of Secretary for State, Country Reports on Terrorism 2007, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, April 30, 2008, www.state.gov.

Sources:

[1] "U.S. says nuclear arsenal includes 5,113 warheads," Reuters, May 3, 2010, www.reuters.com.
[2] World Nuclear Power Reactors & Uranium Requirements, World Nuclear Association, 2 March 2011, www.world-nuclear.org.
[3] "Figure 1.6. National stocks of separated plutonium," Global Fissile Material Report 2010, p.19, www.fissilematerials.org.
[4] "Figure 1.2. National stocks of highly enriched uranium as of 2010," Global Fissile Material Report 2010, p.12, www.fissilematerials.org.
[5] Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg and William J. Broad, "U.S. Germ Warfare Research Pushes Treaty Limits," The New York Times, September 4, 2001, www.nytimes.com.
[6] "Brazil boosts uranium enrichment capacity," Industrial Fuels and Power, 19 January 2011, www.ifandp.com.
[7] "Argentina celebrates enrichment plant reactivation," World Nuclear News, 26 October 2010, www.world-nuclear-news.org.
[8] "Submarine Proliferation: Brazil Current Capabilities," NTI, Updated October, 2010, www.nti.org.
[9] Jessica Lasky-Fink, "Brazil, Argentina Pursue Nuclear Cooperation," Arms Control Today, April 2008, www.armscontrol.org.
[10] Jessica Lasky-Fink, "Brazil, Argentina Pursue Nuclear Cooperation," Arms Control Association, April 2008, www.armscontrol.org; Associated Press, "Argentine, Brazil Presidents Pledge to Pursue Peaceful Nuclear Energy Cooperation," International Herald Tribune, February 22, 2008, www.iht.com.
[11] Associated Press, "Argentine, Brazil Presidents Pledge to Pursue Peaceful Nuclear Energy Cooperation," International Herald Tribune, February 22, 2008, www.iht.com.
[12] Pavel Podvig, "All HEU removed from Chile," www.fissilematerials.org, April, 8, 2010, www.fissilematerials.org.
[13] Pablo Adelfang, Ira Goldman, Adalberto Soares and E. Bradley, "Status and Progress of IAEA Activities on Research Reactor Conversion and Spent Fuel Return Programmes in the Years 2005-2006," www.iaea.org, 2007; "Reducing Nuclear Threats: Fact Sheet," NNSA Website, February 1, 2011, http://nnsa.energy.gov.
[14] Sarah Diehl, "Venezuela's Search for Nuclear Power – or Nuclear Prestige," NTI Issue Brief, May 7, 2009, www.nti.org.
[15] "Panama Canal Traffic — Fiscal Years 2008 Through 2010," Statistics and Administration Models Unit (MEEM), October 25, 2010, www.pancanal.com.
[16] Mark P. Sullivan, "Latin America: Terrorism Issues," CRS, February 23, 2011, www.fas.org.
[17] "Awareness raising and Training for Nuclear Security: TC Number RLA/9/059," www-tc.iaea.org.
[18] "Developing Human Resources in Nuclear Security: TC Project Number RLA/9/063," IAEA, www-tc.iaea.org, accessed March 14, 2011.
[19] "DHS, ICE and Mexico honor graduates of Mexican Customs Investigator Training Program," ICE website, October 22, 2010, www.ice.gov.
[20] Source Oct. 21, 2010, UPI, www.upi.com.
[21] U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesman, "U.S.-Brazil Defense Cooperation Agreement," April 12, 2010 and and "United States and Brazil Agree on Open Skies," December 6, 2010 as found in Peter J. Meyer, "Brazil-U.S. Relations," Congressional Research Service, February 9, 2011, p18-19
[22] Peter J. Meyer, "Brazil-U.S. Relations," Congressional Research Service, February 9, 2011, p.18
[23] Mark P. Sullivan, "Latin America: Terrorism Issues," CRS, February 23, 2011, www.fas.org.
[24] "Colombia Probes FARC Ties to Uranium Seized in Bogota," Bloomberg, March 27, 2008, www.bloomberg.com.
[25] "Secretariat for Multidimensional Security (MSS) Secretariat of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE) Exposure to the Committee on Hemispheric Security on the Hemispheric Support The Implementation of Resolutation 1540 (2004) Security Council United Nations," OAS, February 17, 2011, (Translated from Portuguese), www.scm.oas.org.
[26] Monte Reel, "Paraguayan Smuggling Crossroads Scrutinized," The Washington Post, August 3, 2006, www.washingtonpost.com.
[27] "Support for the implementation at the Hemispheric Level of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004), OAS, February 14, 2010, www.scm.oas.org.
[28] "Report of the Organization of American States to the United Nations On Steps Taken to Implement General Assembling Resolution 63/60 (2208) "Measures to Prevent Terrorist From Acquiring Weapons of Mass Destruction," UN, 2008, www.un.org.
[29] "Security Upgrade for Nassau International Airport," The Commonwealth of Bahamas, March 23, 2005, www.bahamas.gov.bs.
[30] "Fiscal Year 2012 Budget Estimate Cooperative Threat Reduction Program," Defense Threat Reduction Agency, February 2011.