U.S. Response:  Nuclear Testing Site Could Be Counterterrorism Center

U.S. Homeland Security Director Tom Ridge plans to visit the Nevada Test Site next week with state officials who want transform the site into a major anti-terrorism training center.  U.S. Senator Harry Reid (D-Nev.) and other officials want to use the site to train police, firefighters and public health workers in counterterrorism methods.

Advocates of the plan have pointed to the large size and remote location of the site as reasons for conducting training there.  The 1,350-square-mile site, northwest of Las Vegas, was used for nuclear testing from 1951 to 1992  (see GSN, Dec. 18).

Authorities have not yet decided what to do with the site, Ridge’s spokesman Gordon Johndroe said yesterday.  Nevada lawmakers have proposed the training center idea for years, but the proposal has gained new attention since Sept. 11, according to the Associated Press.  Emergency responders train in limited anti-bioterrorism tactics several times a year at the site (Mark Sherman, Associated Press, Jan. 3).

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Threat Assessment:  FBI Extends Threat Alert

The FBI extended the terrorism alert for the United States Wednesday through March 11 (see GSN, Dec. 18).  The alert was based on general threat information rather than a specific threat, officials said yesterday.  “We continue to receive generalized threats on a daily basis,” said an FBI official.

The alert is scheduled to extend beyond the Winter Olympics scheduled for Feb. 8-24 in Salt Lake City.  Olympic events have raised security issues in the past, White House spokesman Ari Fleischer said.  Several officials said they did not think the fact that March 11 would be the six-month anniversary of the Sept. 11 attacks was related to the alert, according to the Miami Herald (Borenstein/Savino, Miami Herald, Jan. 4).

The Dec. 22 arrest of Richard Reid for attempting to bomb an American Airlines flight from Paris to Miami was one reason for extending the warning, officials said.  The FBI suspects Reid’s attempt could have been part of a planned second round of attacks, the Washington Post reported.

The Bush administration has issued three alerts since Sept. 11, and some critics have said the alerts frighten the public without providing details.  The warning issued this week was sent only to law enforcement agencies and not announced publicly.

“The decision was made that it might make more sense to do it this way from now on,” said a law enforcement official.  Homeland Security Director Tom Ridge said recently that he wanted to develop a system with different levels of alert (Eggen/Miller, Washington Post, Jan. 4).

Local authorities said there was little more they could do protect against threats, the Miami Herald reported.  “We stay at the highest level of readiness,” said Bob Andrews, Las Vegas emergency management chief.

Ridge is scheduled to visit the site of the Olympics next week (Borenstein/Savino, Miami Herald, Jan. 4).

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Pakistan:  Terrorist Crackdown Rooted in Nuclear Concerns, Analysts Say

By Greg Seigle

Global Security Newswire

Pakistan’s crackdown on radical Islamic groups within its borders is intended not only to prevent war with India, but is also rooted in U.S. demands that Pakistan keep its nuclear secrets out of Islamic fundamentalists’ hands, U.S. analysts told Global Security Newswire today.

During the past week, Pakistan has arrested dozens of members of two Kashmir extremist groups believed responsible for the Dec. 13 machine gun attack on India’s Parliament. The attack, which left nine security guards and all five gunmen dead, prompted the U.S. State Department to add both groups to its list of terrorist groups Dec. 26.

In addition to adding Lashkar-e-Tayyiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed to its list, the United States has begun the process of freezing any U.S. financial assets of Umma Tameer-e-Nau, which until recently was an unknown outfit believed headquartered in Pakistan (see GSN, Dec. 21).

Umma Tameer-e-Nau is “an organization that claimed to feed the hungry and needy of Afghanistan but that in fact provided information about nuclear weapons to al-Qaeda,” U.S. President George W. Bush said recently.

The two retired Pakistani nuclear physicists arrested last month for sharing undisclosed amounts of nuclear secrets with al-Qaeda—Sultan Bashiru-din Mehmood and Chaudry Abdul Majid—headed Umma Tameer-e-Nau, U.S. officials have said.

“There’s still a fear that the semiautonomous militant groups might gain a sympathetic ear with [Pakistan’s Inter-Service Intelligence agency] and might be able to get their hands on fissile material—nuclear material, radiological material [or] anything that can be used to make a ‘dirty’ bomb,” said Chris Gagne, a research associate with the Henry L. Stimson Center. “The fear of insider collaboration [between the ISI and terrorists] is less than it was two or three months ago, but it is still there.”

The threat of war between India and Pakistan, which both tested nuclear weapons in 1998, has sparked high-level actions by U.S. officials. In the past week alone U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell has made a flurry of phone calls to both Pakistani President Gen. Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee. Powell has also had several communiques with the foreign ministers of both countries, which have fought three wars in the last half-century, the last being in 1971 over Bangladesh.

Threat of Islamic Fundamentalists

While the safety of Pakistan’s nuclear materials has been a major concern of top U.S. officials the past few years due to the rise of Islamic insurgency in the country and Islamabad’s reluctance to share its safety procedures or allow outside inspections, the concerns have been exacerbated since the two Pakistani nuclear physicists were arrested, analysts said.

“There has been a lot of talk, quietly so, of fears of an Islamic coup in Pakistan and the nukes getting in the hands of radical Islamic groups,” said Cheryl Loeb, a Monterey Institute for International Studies research associate. “One of the major concerns of the United States is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.”

The pressure Washington puts on Islamabad is made all the more sensitive because U.S. troops in Afghanistan are relying on Pakistani troops to bottle up their mountainous border with Afghanistan to keep Taliban or al-Qaeda militants from escaping into Pakistan, analysts noted.

Analysts agree that the United States seeks to avert a war between India and Pakistan, and to help Pakistan shore up control of its nuclear assets (see GSN, Nov. 5). A large part of that concern is to keep any rogue elements within Pakistan from gaining control of the nuclear materials or passing nuclear secrets to terrorists groups such as al-Qaeda, they said.

Fears of losing control of nuclear weapons or secrets are “a secondary concern,” said Selig Harrison, director of the National Security Project at the Center for International Policy, who has written five books on South Asia. “It’s a concern, the spread of these nuclear materials … but it’s motivated by how Pakistan keeps, stores and monitors its nuclear assets.”

“I think the underlying cause is the desire of Musharraf to recenter the politics of Pakistan,” said the Woodrow Wilson Center’s Dennis Kux, author of The United States and Pakistan 1947-2000: Disenchanted Allies, recently published by Johns Hopkins University. “He had wanted to move things back [before Sept. 11] but he didn’t have the political muscle … to bring Pakistan politics back from the Islamic brink.”

How Serious Is the Crackdown?

In recent weeks India has massed its troops on its 1,800-mile border with Pakistan and is threatening military action unless Musharraf arrests dozens of members of Lashkar-e-Tayyiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed and hands them over to New Delhi for trial—the latter of which is an unprecedented and unlikely scenario.

Musharraf has cracked down on the two groups, however, arresting Hafiz Mohammed Saeed, head of Lashkar-e-Tayibba, and placing Maulana Masood Azhar under house arrest. But Indian officials have scoffed at the moves, with two ministers separately terming Azhar’s house arrest “a joke.”

 “Nothing has changed, in fact,” declared Harrison. “The situation is still dicey … On the ground in Kashmir there’s been no sign of a crackdown.”

Indeed, skirmishes along the Kashmir border region between Indian and Pakistani forces this past week have killed at least a dozen soldiers and wounded scores more.

“It’s similar to [Palestinian leader Yasser] Arafat and his crackdowns on Hammas,” said Leonard Spector, deputy director of the Monterey Institute’s Center for Nonproliferation. “Just how effective are these crackdowns?”

“They haven’t cracked down yet,” Harrison continued. “The U.S. may be trying to freeze the assets [of Umma Tameer-e-Nau] but we don’t know if they’ve simply shifted from one [bank] account to another.”

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U.S.-Russia:  Arms Agreements Need to be Codified, Moscow Says

Russian officials have said they want to see any new strategic arms agreements with the United States be codified in new treaties, the Christian Science Monitor reported today.

“So far there are just two presidents who have talked pleasantly together, which is a very good thing,” said Oleg Naumov, a member of the foreign commission of the state Duma, the lower house of Russia’s Parliament.  “But presidents come and go.  Treaties last,” Naumov said.  “Today there is a legal vacuum in the world, and it must soon be filled with something reliable.”

Russia hopes to see at least two new treaties this year, according to experts.  One would concern strategic nuclear weapons reductions worked out by Russian President Vladimir Putin and U.S. President George W. Bush and would have a set of mutual obligations and a means of verification (see GSN, Nov. 14).  The other would be a replacement for the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, with the hope it could be drafted by the time of Bush’s visit to Moscow this year (see GSN, Dec. 13).

“If the old treaties were outdated, then let’s replace them with relevant ones,” Naumov said.  “But we must have firm controls on the number of strategic weapons, and that must be clearly balanced with the development of anti-missile weapons.  You cannot assure global security just on the basis of a handshake” (Fred Weir, Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 4).

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United States:  Report Criticizes U.S. Handling of Wen Ho Lee Case

The U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Department of Justice Oversight released a report late last month that criticizes the federal government’s handling of the espionage case concerning nuclear scientist Wen Ho Lee in 1999, according to a summary of the report in the Congressional Record.

The U.S. investigation of Lee was “so inept that despite scrutiny spanning nearly two decades, both the FBI and the Department of Energy missed repeated opportunities to discover and stop his illegal computer activities,” said the summary.

“As a consequence of these numerous failures, magnetic computer tapes containing some of the nation’s most sensitive nuclear secrets are now missing when they could have been recovered as late as December 1998 and possibly even later,” the summary said.

The report concluded that claims that the investigation of Lee was ethnically biased were unfounded.  “The repeated investigations of Dr. Lee resulted from reasonable suspicions raised by Dr. Lee’s own conduct,” the summary said.  The report indicated that the government’s treatment of Lee after his arrest, which included placing him in manacles and solitary confinement, may have been a tactic to coerce a confession.

The report lists several concerns with the way the Energy Department and the FBI handled the investigation, including:

*         The government had “highly credible” information that Lee had helped the Chinese with computer codes and software, but investigators did not examine Lee’s own computer;

*         The FBI focused excessively on the alleged loss of design information on the W-88 nuclear warhead due to the reliance on the Energy Department’s administrative inquiry.

*          The Justice Department should have approved the FBI’s request for electronic surveillance of Lee.

*         The U.S. claim that Lee had to be banned from communication is “severely undercut” by the failure to obtain any kind of surveillance.  “If the government was truly concerned that Dr. Lee could potentially alter the global strategic balance though phrases as innocuous as ‘Uncle Wen says hello,’ or might send a signal to a foreign intelligence service to extract him, it should have sought to monitor his communications, but it did not.”

*         The Energy Department should not have allowed Wackenhut contract polygraph examiners to administer a lie detector test to Lee, which they later incorrectly reported Lee had passed.

*         Some of the controversial steps in the case appeared to be taken to protect agencies’ image rather than out of concern for national security.

“One great tragedy of the Wen Ho Lee case is that the entire truth will likely never be known” the summary said.  “If the information Dr. Lee put at risk did not fall into the wrong hands, it is a matter of mere luck.  When the nation’s most sensitive nuclear secrets are at issue, it is unacceptable that we should have to rely on luck to keep them safe” (Congressional Record, Dec. 20).

Click here to read the report.

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Sudan:  Country Is Nuclear Weapon-Free, Says IAEA Chief

Sudan has no nuclear weapons, said Mohamed ElBaradei, director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency, at the end of a visit to the country Dec. 25, according to a Sudanese release.

“Sudan does not possess nuclear weapons,” ElBaradei said, adding that he was pleased the country “complies with its commitments under nonproliferation arrangements in using nuclear programs only for peaceful purposes.”

Sudanese President Lt. Gen. Umar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir thanked the director general for IAEA support for research and technology programs in Sudan.  Al-Bashir said he hoped to use nuclear technologies for health care, animal husbandry, agriculture and hydrological research.  ElBaradei said the IAEA would continue to help Sudan improve nuclear technology for medical treatment, plant breeding and electricity plants (U.S. Newswire, Jan. 3).

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India-Pakistan:  Have Nuclear Weapons Stabilized the Crisis?

The nuclear capabilities of India and Pakistan could have helped prevent war so far, according to some experts.  “I know it goes against all nonproliferation theory, but I believe the presence of nuclear weapons [in the region] has actually made things better, for now,” said Sumit Ganguly, a South Asia expert at the University of Texas (see related GSN story, today).

Despite recent tensions since a mid-December attack on the Indian Parliament and military deployments at the countries’ border, the two sides have been cautious about escalating the situation into a serious war, apparently in part due to concerns about potential nuclear ramifications, according to the Christian Science Monitor (see GSN, Jan. 3).

“Both sides now show great cognizance that there are nuclear dangers and that they have to be extremely careful,” said George Perkovich of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

The consequences of a nuclear war in the region would be disastrous.  One nuclear weapon dropped on Bombay could result in 850,000 casualties, according to a recent study (Peter Grier, Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 4).

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Anthrax:  Daschle Receives Suspected Hoax Letter

A letter believed to be an anthrax hoax was discovered yesterday at the Capitol Hill office of U.S. Senate Majority Leader Tom Daschle (D-S.D.), according to the New York Times.

The letter contained a threatening note and white powder, the Times reported.  Initial field tests conducted on the powder showed that it was harmless, said U.S. Capitol Police spokesman Lt. Dan Nichols.  He added that the substance would still be unknown until the results of further laboratory testing.  It was also not known whether the powder was once dangerous before being irradiated, Nichols said.  All mail sent to Congress is irradiated and screened before being delivered.

The envelope of the letter had a London postmark and appeared to be a hoax, said an FBI spokesman.  Yesterday’s letter did not resemble the four letters previously found to have contained anthrax, the FBI spokesman said (David Stout, New York Times, Jan. 4). 

Daschle said the letter looked to be “a copycat mailing,” similar to the anthrax-tainted letter mailed to his office last October (see GSN, Oct. 16).  “It said ‘this was anthrax, death to America,’ something to that effect, and ‘stop the bombing’ was the only phrase that was new,” Daschle said.

The powder was found in a separate packet, which could explain why it was not found by congressional mail screeners, who cut the corners off envelopes to search for suspicious substances, Daschle said.  “The early test showed in this case that it was not anthrax,” he said.  “We took this white powder very seriously.  There was a note inside that basically said this was anthrax” (Associated Press/New York Times, Jan. 4).

Senate Staff Hope to Return to Offices

U.S. Senate staff members are wary, but hopeful, they can soon return to the Hart Senate Office Building, the site of Daschle’s regular suite of offices, the Washington Times reported today (see GSN, Jan. 2).  “We won’t believe we’re going into the Hart building until they unlock the doors,” said David DiMartino, spokesman for Sen. Ben Nelson (D-Neb.).

Daschle had previously said that the chlorine dioxide fumigation process used to decontaminate the Hart building of anthrax was “very effective” in killing any remaining spores.  He also had said there was a “reasonable possibility” that the building could be reopened as soon as next week.

The Hart building, however, would not reopen next week because the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention first needs to review test results as they become available, said U.S. Environmental Protection Agency spokeswoman Bonnie Piper.  The building’s fire alarms, elevators and other systems also need to be tested before it can reopen, said Bruce Milhans, spokesman for the Office of the Architect of the Capitol (Amy Fagan, Washington Times, Jan. 4).

Experts Discuss Profile

Various experts have begun to speculate on a profile of who may be behind the anthrax attacks, the New York Times reported today (see GSN, Dec. 14).  The person responsible may be American, someone who worked in the military’s biological weapons programs and someone who only wanted to scare, rather than kill, people, according to the Times.

“I think there are on the order of 100 people who could have done it, who have the access to the spores and the technical expertise to have done it,” said one source familiar with the military’s biodefense program.  “I’ve got to admit that I could be a suspect.  I’ve been interviewed by the FBI.”

Experts have said whoever is responsible may be connected to the military because the anthrax used in the attacks is genetically identical to spores kept by the U.S. army, the Times reported.  The person also indicated a knowledge of forensics, since neither the flap of the envelope nor the stamp had been licked, which would have left behind DNA evidence.

The person likely did not want to kill anyone, since the envelopes were tightly sealed and it was unknown, at the time of the attacks, that spores could leak through the envelopes, according to the Times.  Each letter also had a warning that the powder was anthrax.

“I don’t think that he was trying to kill anybody,” said Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, a microbiologist at New York State University and the author of a paper examining the available evidence in the anthrax investigation.  “I think the motive was to create public fear, to raise the profile of biological warfare” (Nicholas Kristoff, New York Times, Jan. 4). 

Click here to read Rosenberg’s paper.

New York Postal Workers Reject Vaccine

New York postal worker union officials yesterday advised their members to not take the vaccine being offered as an anthrax post-exposure treatment, according to the Washington Post.

Instead, union officials want the Morgan mail processing center in Manhattan cleaned of any potential anthrax contamination.  “We don’t want a vaccine.  We want the building clean,” said William Smith, president of the New York Metro Area Postal Union.  “CDC doctors claim they know what they’re doing.  But they’re guessing,” Smith said.

Today, lawyers representing the postal workers union are expected to go before a federal judge to get an order for the U.S. Postal Service to extensively test and clean the Morgan mail facility.  Mail sorting machines at Morgan tested positive for anthrax in October after processing tainted letters.  Last month, officials retested five sorting machines and one came back positive (Christine Haughney, Washington Post, Jan. 4).

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United States I:  OPCW to Inspect Chemical Weapons in Panama

Panama announced yesterday that international officials plan to reinspect chemical weapons left behind by the United States.  Panamanian Foreign Minister Jose Miguel Aleman requested the inspection, scheduled for Jan. 21-27, from the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.

The OPCW inspected San Jose Island in June and discovered chemical weapons that mostly originated from the United States, although some were British.  Aleman requested the United States deal with the weapons in accordance with the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention.

Last month, Aleman wrote U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to ask the United States to be responsible for disposing of any remaining chemical weapons in Panama (EFE News Service, Jan. 3).

Panama said the United States conducted chemical weapons experiments on the island during World War II, the Associated Press reported.  The United States had said it cleared the island of weapons before Panama took formal control (Associated Press, Jan. 3).

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United States II:  Senator Advocates Water-Based Method to Destroy CW

U.S. Senator Wayne Allard (R-Colo.) has asked the Defense Department to use a water-based method to neutralize mustard gas stored in “igloos” at the Pueblo Chemical Depot (see GSN, Dec. 11), the Associated Press reported yesterday.  The department is considering four possible destruction methods, two that use incineration and two that use water.  The department is expected to announce its decision Feb. 1.

The method Allard advocated would mix water with the mustard agent to deactivate the agent.  Then specialists would add certain bacteria to transform the gas into a nonlethal substance, a process called biodegradation. 

Several Pueblo community organizations have said they preferred the government destroy the gas using the biodegradation method (Associated Press, Jan. 3).

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South Korea:  Seoul Contracts for U.S.-Made Missiles

South Korea has agreed to purchase 110 tactical ballistic missiles with a 300-kilometer range from Lockheed Martin, the Korea Times reported today.  The Army Tactical Missile System, or ATACMS Block 1A, could hit the North Korean capital of Pyongyang as well as other key North Korean cities, according to the Times (see GSN, Nov. 26).

In a 1979 agreement, South Korea was banned from developing missiles with a ranger greater than 180 kilometers, the Korea Times reported.  Last January, however, South Korea worked out an agreement with the United States that included approval of the development of ballistic missiles with a range up to 300 kilometers (Korea Times, Jan. 4).

The $81 million contract calls for Lockheed Martin to provide the missiles by April 2004, according to a press release.  This is Lockheed Martin’s first international sale of the Block 1A version of the ATACMS missile.

The Block 1A is has nearly double the range of the original version, an increase gained primarily by reducing the missile’s payload (Lockheed Martin release, Dec. 4).

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U.S. Plans:  Cancellation of Naval Missile Defense Stirs Allies

Analysts and experts say cancellation of the U.S. Navy Area Missile Defense System might anger U.S. allies, who were hoping to use the Block IVA missile for their own ship-based systems, Defense Daily reported yesterday (see GSN, Dec. 20).

The Pentagon canceled development of the sea-based theater missile defense system last month due to cost overruns and technical flaws (see GSN, Dec. 17).  U.S. allies such as Germany, Japan and Spain, however, were planning to use the Block IVA missile being developed as part of the system, according to analysts.  The defense contractor Lockheed Martin had also developed a software upgrade to its Aegis fire-control system to accommodate the new missile, Defense Daily reported.

“A number of foreign navies planned to configure their ships to deal with this missile and we pulled the plug on it,” said Frank Cevasco of Hicks & Associates.

“Clearly, the program had its problems, but I’m not sure from an international standpoint pushing it over the cliff was necessarily the right thing to do,” Cevasco said.  “It’s things like this that makes it hard for countries which want to work with the United States to do so, and only feeds the impression that the U.S. is willing to leave you in a lurch.”

The Block IVA missile was appealing to U.S. allies because it was similar to the SM-2 air defense missile and could be more easily installed on ships with the Aegis system than the more advanced SM-3 could, said Stuart Slade of Forecast International/DMS.

“SM-2 Block IVA had significantly less ship impact than the SM-3,” which made it more attractive for export, Slade said.  “That’s why the Dutch, the Germans, the Spanish and the Norwegians, to a lesser extent, had in the back of their minds that their new Aegis ships would take on some of the ABM capabilities by using Block IVA without making it too obvious.”

“Basically, under the guise of getting a really good air defense weapon, they would also get an anti-missile capability without admitting they had it,” Slade said.

Slade said the halt on development of the Block IVA could force allies into helping develop the SM-3, which is a more advanced missile.

“From the European point of view, Block IVA was a very convenient option.  But from the DOD standpoint, it was simply redundant,” he said.  “Block IVA did a lot of things less well than SM-3.  The best way to think about it is Block IVA was a transition weapon to SM-3.  Now these countries have to ask whether they want to invest the extra money to acquire a more elaborate, and efficient, weapon or give up their antimissile ambitions” (Vago Muradian, Defense Daily, Jan. 3).

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Taiwan:  Patriot PAC-III Missile System Still on Purchase List

Taiwan’s military said it did not cancel plans to purchase the Patriot PAC-III missile system from the United States, despite recent news reports to the contrary, the Taipei Times reported today (see GSN, Dec. 17).

The military said the system was essential to create a missile defense system to protect Taiwan from Chinese missiles.  Military officials said they planned to buy three Patriot PAC-III batteries if enough funds were available.

The United States has agreed to sell the system to Taiwan, and representatives from the two countries are expected to continue meetings this year to discuss the purchase, according to a defense source.  Taiwan could receive the first battery within two years if the countries reach an agreement, the source said.

Patriot PAC-III batteries would provide Taiwan with land-based missile interceptors and would be an improvement over Taiwan’s current Patriot PAC-II Plus system, the Times reported.

Chang Li-teh of Defense Technology Monthly said the Patriot PAC-III was the “lowest-tier missile defense system now being constructed by the U.S.” and questioned its effectiveness.  He said, however, that the system might meet Taiwan’s basic needs as long as the military also purchases a long-range early warning radar system.  “We certainly need such a radar system.  Without it, the effective range of the Patriot PAC-III batteries will be greatly reduced,” Chang said (Brian Hsu, Taipei Times, Jan. 4).

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Recent Publications

Ahmed, Samina, Countering Nuclear Risks in South Asia, Council for A Livable World Education Fund, December 2001, 19 pp.

Cambell, Kurt M. and Michele A. Flournoy, To Prevail: An American Strategy for the Campaign Against Terrorism, Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, November 2001, 395 pp.

Cordesman, Anthony, Weapons of Mass Destruction in India and Pakistan, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Dec. 27, 2001, 22 pp.

General Accounting Office, letter to Congress, NNSA Management: Progress in the Implementation of Title 32, Dec. 12, 2001, 20 pp.

General Accounting Office, letter to Congress, Nuclear Weapons: Status of Planning for Stockpile Life Extension, Dec. 7, 2001, 13 pp.

Kux, Dennis, Disenchanted Allies: The United States and Pakistan, 1947-2000, Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2001, 400 pp.

Office of Management and Budget, The Global War on Terrorism: The First 100 Days, December 2001.

Pillar, Paul R., Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy, Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2001, 272 pp.

U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, Alexandria Division, Indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui, December 2001, 31 pp.

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