Archive: 1997 Report on Russian Export Controls: Legislative Acts and Executive Decrees on Export Control [1]

To return to the current Russian export controls section, see the Russia: Export Controls file.
To return to the current Russian export legislation section, see the Russia: Export Control Legislation file.
To return to the 1997 report introduction, see the Archive: 1997 Export Controls Report Introduction file.

The following is an overview based on a report prepared by the Center for Nonproliferation Studies of the Monterey Institute of International Studies in January 1997 under a grant from the United States Department of Energy's Office of Nonproliferation and Arms Control. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors alone, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Department of Energy or the United States Government.

LEGISLATIVE ACTS

1. Law No. 4902-1, 4/29/93, "Addenda to the RSFSR Criminal Code and the RSFSR Code of Criminal Procedure."

This law changed the Russian Criminal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure in order to protect national interests in the exercise of foreign economic activity and to fulfill international obligations in the nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The Criminal Code was supplemented with Article 78-1, which provided for criminal punishments under the following terms:
 
i) Illegal export of raw materials, materials, equipment, technology, and scientific-technical information, and services which can be used to develop arms and military equipment, which fall under special export control, is punishable by up to five years imprisonment with or without confiscation of assets, or by a fine of up to 50 times the minimum wage.
 
ii) Illegal export of raw materials, materials, equipment, technology, scientific-technical information, and services which can be used to develop nuclear, chemical and other types of weapons of mass destruction and their missile delivery systems, which fall under special export control, is punishable by three to eight years imprisonment with or without confiscation of assets, or by a fine of up to 75 times the minimum wage.

2. Federal Law No. 153-FZ, 10/13/95, " On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activity."

This federal law established definitions for state regulation of foreign trade activity, the procedure its of implementation, and the rights, duties, and obligations of organs of state power of the Russian Federation and of subjects of the Russian Federation in the sphere of foreign trade activity. The law was adopted by the Duma on 7/7/95, approved by the Federation Council on 7/21/95, and signed by the President on 10/13/95. The original version of the law, adopted by the Duma in 5/95, declared that lists of controlled items would be approved by federal laws to be published within six months of their publication. This version was vetoed, however, by the President.[2] The law contains the following articles relevant to nonproliferation export controls:
 
i) Article 2 of Chapter I provided a list of the specific concepts or terms underlying export control.
 
ii) Article 6 of Chapter II provided for federal jurisdiction in determining policy and procedures for export control of fissionable materials and raw goods, materials, equipment, technology, scientific-technical information and services which can be used to develop arms and military equipment or nuclear, chemical and other types of weapons of mass destruction and their missile delivery systems.
 
iii) Article 16 of Chapter IV provided basic principles for export control regulations. It states that an export control system is in effect in the Russian Federation to protect national interests and to fulfill international obligations in the nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Further, the article clarifies that arms, military equipment, raw materials, equipment, technology, scientific-technical information, and services which can be used to develop weapons of mass destruction or their means of delivery are contained in lists of controlled items established by Presidential edict (which go into effect at least three months from the date of their publication), and their export is controlled in accordance with procedures outlined by the Government.

3. Federal Law No. 170-FZ, 11/21/95, "On the Use of Atomic Energy."

This federal law codified the legal basis and the regulatory principles with regard to the use of atomic energy to protect the life and health of people, the environment, and property used in association with atomic energy, to promote the development of atomic science and technology, and to cooperate in the enhancement of the international regime for the peaceful use of atomic energy. The law was adopted by the Duma on 10/20/95 and signed by the President on 11/21/95. An earlier version was adopted by the Duma on 6/2/95, but was vetoed by the President on 6/25/95. Chapter XIV of the law contains two articles on export and import of nuclear installations, equipment, technology, nuclear materials, radioactive substances, special non-nuclear substances, and services in the sphere of atomic energy.
 
i) Article 63 on principles states that export and import of these items are carried out in accordance with international obligations for nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and international agreements in the sphere of atomic energy. It also clarifies that export and import includes transfer, purchase, or sale of these items for commercial purposes and transfers of noncommercial character for exhibitions, joint construction projects, and other purposes.
 
ii) Article 64 on procedures states that export and import of these items are carried out under procedures established by legislative and other legal acts of the Russian Federation, and in accordance with legislation regarding export controls on the basis of permits issued for the right to conduct work in the sphere of atomic energy. It also states that imports of nuclear fuel to Russia for reprocessing is carried out under procedures established by legislation of the Russian Federation and by international agreements.

4. Federal Law No. 3-FZ, 1/9/96, "On Radiation Safety of the Population."

Article 5 of this law assigned responsibilities for issues regarding export and import of nuclear materials, radioactive substances, and other sources of ionizing radiation to federal authorities.

5. Law No. 63-FZ, 6/13/96, "Criminal Code of the Russian Federation."

This law was adopted by the Duma on 5/24/96, approved by the Federation Council on 6/5/96, and signed by the President on 6/13/96. It was scheduled to come into force after 1/1/97.
 
i) Article 189 provided criminal punishments for illegal export of technologies, scientific-technical information, and services which can be used to develop weapons of mass destruction and vehicles for their delivery, and for arms and military equipment, which fall under special export control.
 
ii) Article 221 provided criminal punishments for embezzlement or extortion of radioactive materials.
 
iii) Article 355 provide criminal punishments for production or proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. 

EXECUTIVE DECREES

1. Presidential Decree No. 213, 11/15/91, "On Liberalization of Foreign Economic Activities on the Territory of the RSFSR."

This early decree was enacted primarily to stimulate foreign economic activity, stabilize internal markets, and attract foreign investment. Article 2 requires the Cabinet of Ministers to compile lists of commodities (works, services) subject to licensing and quotas. It also calls upon the Cabinet of Ministers to establish a system of licensing and quotas by January 1, 1992.

2. Government Resolution No. 90, 12/31/91, "On the Setting of Quotas and Licensing of Exports and Imports of Commodities (Works/Services) on the Territory of the Russian Federation in 1992."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 854, 11/6/92.) In accordance with Presidential Decree No. 213 (above), this resolution establishes the guidelines for setting up a new licensing regime in Russia. Appendices 1-4 establish lists of items subject to quotas and licensing. Appendix 2, which lists those items subject to licensing in accordance with guidelines specified by the Cabinet of Ministers, includes weapons, military technology, explosives, and nuclear and radioactive materials. The Committee for Foreign Economic Relations under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is given a primary role for issuing licenses and setting quotas for export.

3. Government Resolution No. 188, 3/21/92, "On Amending Governmental Regulation No. 90 (12/31/91)."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 854, 11/6/92.) This resolution introduced a few minor changes in the control lists from Government Regulation No. 90.

4. Presidential Decree No. 312, 3/27/92, "On Control Of Export of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, and Technologies from the Russian Federation."

This decree stipulates Russian adherence to the policy of full-scope safeguards as a condition of export of nuclear material, equipment, and technology to non-nuclear weapon states.

5. Presidential Decree No. 388, 4/11/92, "On Measures to Establish an Export Control System in Russia."

This decree provided the initial legal basis for creating a system of nonproliferation export controls in the Russian Federation. With reference both to Russian national interests and to international nonproliferation obligations, the decree resolved to establish export controls for materials, equipment, and technologies which can be used in the development of military equipment, or of missile, nuclear, chemical, and other types of weapons of mass destruction.
 
a) An Export Control Commission (Eksportkontrol) was established, with responsibilities for coordinating export control policy. The commission’s members would include the deputy heads of a number of government bodies, including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Economics, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Science, the Ministry of Industry, the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the State Customs Committee, and the Ministry of Security.
 
b) The Department for Export Controls in the Ministry of Economics was given the responsibility of functioning as a working body for Eksportkontrol.
 
c) The chairman of Eksportkontrol was instructed to develop a draft statute for the commission, to be submitted for approval to the Cabinet of Ministers.
 
d) Eksportkontrol was instructed to develop draft export control lists for dual-use materials, equipment, and technologies which could be used in the production of armaments or weapons of mass destruction (including missile, nuclear, chemical, and biological.)[3]
 
e) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Eksportkontrol were tasked with coordinating multilateral nonproliferation export control work with other CIS states.
 
f) The Ministry of Justice and Eksportkontrol were tasked with preparing proposals on the criminal and administrative penalties for noncompliance with export control procedures.

6. Government Resolution No. 366, 5/29/92, "On the Adoption of Documents Regulating Export of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 575, 5/8/96.) This resolution adopted the guidelines on export of dual-use nuclear items that were approved at the Warsaw meeting of the Nuclear Suppliers Group in March-April 1992.[4]

7. Presidential Decree No. 628, 6/14/92, "On Control of Strategic Raw Materials."

8. Presidential Directive No. 508 rp[5], 9/16/92, "On the Introduction of Control Over the Export from the Russian Federation of Chemical Substances and Technologies Which Have Peaceful Purposes, but Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons. List of Chemical Substances and Technologies Which Have Peaceful Purposes, but Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons, the Export of Which is Accomplished by Licenses."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Presidential Directive 621 rp, 12/7/94.) This directive approved a control list for exports of dual-use chemical substances and technologies. The list contained 40 chemical substances and 12 related production technologies which require a license for export. The list was compiled in accordance with Australia Group recommendations, although the Russian Federation is not a member of the Australia Group.[6]

9. Government Resolution No. 734, 9/18/92, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Chemical Substances and Technologies Which Have Peaceful Purposes but Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 50, 1/16/95.) In accordance with Presidential Directive 508 rp, 9/16/92, this resolution approved the export and licensing procedures for dual-use chemical substances and technology. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for dual-use chemical exports.

10. State Customs Committee Order No. 465, 10/15/92, "On Control Over the Export of Chemicals and Technologies Which Have a Peaceful Purpose But Can Be Used in the Creation of Chemical Weapons."

11. Government Resolution No. 842, 11/2/92, "On Approval of the Status of the Russian Federation Export Control Commission Under the Russian Federation Government and its Composition."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE.

12. Government Resolution No. 854, 11/6/92, "On the Setting of Quotas and Issuing of Licenses for Exports and Imports on the Territory of the Russian Federation."

This resolution replaced Government Resolutions No. 90, 12/31/91 and No. 188, 3/21/92.

13. Presidential Directive No. 711 rp, 11/17/92, "On the Introduction of Control Over the Export from the Russian Federation of Disease Agents (Pathogens), their Genetic Variations, and Fragments of Genetic Materials Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons. The List of Pathogens, Their Genetic Variations, and Fragments of Genetic Material Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Presidential Directive 298 rp, 6/14/94.) This directive approved a control list for exports of dual-use biological agents. The list contained 21 viruses, two rickettsia, 14 bacteria, and 13 toxins which require a license for export. The list was compiled in accordance with Australia Group recommendations, although the Russian Federation is not a member of the Australia Group.[7]

14. Government Resolution No. 892, 11/20/92, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Disease Agents (Pathogens), Their Genetically Altered Forms, and Fragments of Genetic Material Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 1098, 9/26/94.) In accordance with Presidential Directive 711 rp, 11/17/92, this resolution approved the export and licensing procedures for dual-use biological agents. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for dual-use biological exports.

15. Government Resolution No. 1005, 12/21/92, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Exports and Imports of Nuclear Materials, Technology, Equipment, Installations, Special Non-nuclear Materials, Radioactive Sources of Ionizing Radiation and Isotopes."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Amended by Government Resolution No. 1136, 10/6/94, and later replaced by Government Resolution No. 574, 5/8/96.) This resolution approved the export and import licensing procedures for nuclear items. Nuclear items were defined in Appendix One as material, technology, equipment, installations, and special non-nuclear material. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for nuclear exports.
 
a) Licenses for trade in specified materials are issued by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, with the approval of the Ministry of Atomic Energy.
 
b) Licenses may only be granted to those entities that have permission from Gosatomnadzor for business in the sphere of atomic energy.
 
c) Transfers to non-nuclear-weapon states are authorized only if the competent bodies of the importing states verify that all nuclear items either imported from Russia or derived from or made with the help of those items:
 
i) will not to be used to produce nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosives or for military objectives;
 
ii) will be placed under IAEA safeguards during the whole period of their use in accordance with the agreement of the recipient country on the application of IAEA safeguards to all peaceful nuclear activities;
 
iii) will be provided with physical protection measures at least at the level recommended by the IAEA;
 
iv) can be re-exported or transferred to a third country only if the above three conditions are met by that country. Re-export or transfer of HEU, Pu, and heavy water requires the written permission of Minatom.

16. Presidential Directive No. 827 rp, 12/28/92, "On the Introduction of Control Over Exports from the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes. List of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes, the Export of Which is Accomplished by Licenses."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Presidential Decree No. 228, 2/21/96.) This directive approved a control list for exports of nuclear dual-use material, equipment, and technology. The list conforms to the list of nuclear dual-use items identified in the Annex to the Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines created at the Warsaw meeting in April 1992.[8] The list includes the following categories: industrial equipment, materials, equipment and components for isolating uranium isotopes, equipment involved in production of heavy water, equipment for developing implosion systems, explosive substances and equipment associated with them, equipment and components for nuclear testing, and miscellaneous.

17. Presidential Directive No. 20 rp, 1/11/93, "On the Introduction of Control of Exports From the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (This directive was amended by Presidential Directive No. 744 rp, 11/19/93, and partially replaced by Presidential Directive No. 193 rp, 4/23/95, which was in turn replaced by Presidential Decree 1194, 8/16/96). This directive approved a control list for exports of equipment, materials, and technologies used to produce missiles capable of delivering payloads of at least 500 kg to a range of at least 300 km. Category I of the list contained complete rocket systems, equipment, and technologies that are used to develop missiles. Category II of the list contained materials, equipment, and technology that are used to develop missiles.[9] The list was supposed to be consistent with the MTCR Guidelines but failed to address the critical issue of delimitations on range and payload for missile-related transfers within the two Categories.[10]

18. Government Resolution No. 70, 1/27/93, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials and Technology Employed To Develop Missile Weapons."

(This resolution was later amended by Government Resolutions No. 1178, 11/19/93, No. 521, 5/24/95, and No. 1100, 9/13/96.) In accordance with Presidential Directive No. 20 rp, 1/11/93, this resolution approved the export licensing procedures for equipment, materials, and technologies used to produce missiles capable of delivering payloads of at least 500 kg to a range of at least 300 km. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for missile exports. Items in Category I of the control list (Presidential Directive No. 20 rp, above) "as a rule" were prohibited for export, while Category II items could be exported under licenses. However, Category I items could be authorized for export in exceptional cases (i.e., when these items were intended for use in peaceful space programs and the quantity exported was not sufficient to build a missile weapon). This aspect of the licensing guidelines was at odds with the MTCR Guidelines, which called for presumption of denial of all exports of items in Category I. The exception was used to justify sales of cryogenic engines to India.[11]

19. Government Resolution No. 68, 1/27/93, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 575, 5/8/96.) In accordance with Presidential Directive 827 rp, 12/28/92, this resolution approved export licensing procedures for nuclear dual-use material, equipment, and technologies. Responsibility for the organization of export controls in this sphere is given to the Export Control Commission (Eksportkontrol), the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, and the State Customs Committee. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for nuclear exports.
 
a) Licenses for trade in dual-use nuclear items are issued by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, following the issuance of a finding by Eksportkontrol. Exports are carried out under one-time licenses only.
 
b) The importer must verify that all dual-use nuclear items imported either from Russia, or derived from or made with the help of those items:
 
i) will not to be used to produce nuclear explosives or conduct any nuclear fuel cycle activity which is not under IAEA safeguards.
 
ii) If a contract is concluded with an importer in a country that does not have IAEA safeguards, goods can be re-exported or transferred to a third country only if the above conditions are met by that country. Re-export or transfer requires the approval of Eksportkontrol, and the written permission of the exporter.
 
iii) All contracts must indicate the end user, the location, and how the exported material will be used.
 
c) Export of dual-use nuclear items is not allowed is cases, where the importer has demonstrated illegal acquisition of dual-use nuclear items, or of past acquisitions applied in the development of nuclear explosive devices or in nuclear fuel cycle activity not under IAEA safeguards.

20. Presidential Decree No. 235, 2/18/93, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating the Introduction of Embargoes on the Delivery of Arms and Military Equipment, Offers of Services of a Military-Technical Nature, and the Delivery of Raw or Other Materials or Equipment or the Transfer of Military or Dual-Use Technologies to Foreign States, Including Member States of the CIS."

This decree approves the procedure for introducing embargoes. The President of the Russian Federation, in coordination with the Cabinet of Ministers, considers proposals prepared by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Governmental Commission on Military-Technical Cooperation, and the Export Control Commission, and makes decisions on imposing embargoes according to decisions of the UN Security Council, taking into account Russia’s national interests. The Governmental Commission on Military-Technical Cooperation with Foreign Countries is responsible for monitoring compliance with sanctions that have been adopted.

21. Decree No. 85, 2/26/93, "On the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations of the Russian Federation."

This decree clarified the responsibilities of the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations in the sphere of export/import licensing and export controls.

22. Government Resolution No. 486, 5/24/93, "On Urgent Measures to Step up the Customs Control on the State Borders of the Russian Federation."

23. Government Resolution No. 560, 6/16/93, "On Tasks of the Federal Service for Foreign Currency and Export Control of the Russian Federation."

24. Presidential Decree No. 1444, 9/24/93, "On Russia’s Federal Service for Currency and Export Control."

25. Government Resolution No. 1030, 10/11/93, "On Controlling the Fulfillment of Obligations to Guarantee the Use of Imported and Exported Dual-Use Goods (Services) for Declared Purposes."

This resolution approved the procedures for monitoring the fulfillment of obligations regarding end-use of dual-use imports and exports. The statute covers both measures to prevent unauthorized re-export of dual-use items from Russia, and measures to prevent the unauthorized re-export from a foreign country of dual-use items imported from Russia. Specifically, the statute sets forth the procedure for:
 
a) obtaining an import certificate, a delivery confirmation certificate, and an end-user certificate;
 
b) transferring a dual-use item from one enterprise to another within the territory of the Russian Federation;
 
c) re-exporting a dual-use item to a third country;
 
d) verifying that a Russian importer is using a dual-use item for the declared purpose;
 
e) monitoring that a foreign importer is using a dual-use item, imported from the Russian Federation, for the declared purpose. Verification is performed by a commission made up of a representative of the enterprise that is the exporter, a representative of the enterprise that is the manufacturer, the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the State Customs Committee, and the Ministry of Security. If a violation is found, that importer is entered onto a list (maintained by the MFER) of unreliable foreign firms to which the export of dual-use items is prohibited.

26. Government Resolution No. 1102, 11/2/93, "On Measures Towards Liberalization of External Economic Activity."

27. Government Resolution No. 1136, 11/3/93, "On Approval and Submission for Consideration by the President of the RUSSIAN FEDERATION of a Proposal for Revising and Enlarging the List of Equipment, Materials and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

This resolution proposed a revised control list for exports of equipment, materials, and technologies used to produce missiles.

28. Government Resolution No. 1157, 11/15/93, "On the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control."

This resolution was adopted in accordance with Presidential Decree No. 1444, 9/24/93.

29. Presidential Directive No. 744 rp, 11/19/93, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to the List of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Presidential Directive No. 193 rp, 4/25/95.) This directive amended Presidential Directive No. 20 rp, 1/3/93. It approved the revised control list for exports of equipment, materials and technologies used to produce missiles capable of delivering payloads to a range of at least 300 km, contained in Government Resolution No. 1136, 11/3/93. Category I of the list contained complete rocket systems, equipment, and technologies that are used to develop missiles able to carry payloads weighing at least 500 kg for 300 km or more. Category II of the list contained complete rocket systems, materials, equipment, and technology that are used to develop missiles able to carry payloads for 300 km or more, that are not included in Category I.[12] The list was revised to more accurately reflect MTCR Guidelines.[13]

30. Government Resolution No. 1178, 11/19/93, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons."

This resolution approved a revised export licensing procedure for exports of equipment, material, and technology used to produce missiles capable of delivering payloads to a range of at least 300 km, by presenting a new version of the statute that had been approved in Government Resolution No. 70, 1/27/93. Changes to the statute included deletion of problematic phrases and paragraphs, as well as insertion of new paragraphs clarifying procedures. As in resolution No. 70, items in Category I of the control list (Presidential Directive No. 744 rp, above) are "as a rule" prohibited for export, while Category II items may be exported under licenses. However, language detailing that authorization for exports of items in Category I could be granted in exceptional cases (i.e., when these items were intended for use in peaceful space programs and the quantity exported was not sufficient to build a missile weapon) was removed. According to new language in the statute, exceptions may be made in accordance with the MTCR. Russia agreed to change licensing guidelines to more accurately reflect MTCR Guidelines largely under pressure from the US[14]. Other new language included the following:
 
a) Paragraph 2 stated that the objective of export controls of specified items is to prevent the proliferation of missile equipment and technology that could lead to development of missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction.
 
b) Paragraph 6 stated that exports of controlled items or of any rockets or unmanned aerial vehicles could be prohibited if there is evidence that the importer intends to use them as delivery vehicles for weapons of mass destruction. The possibility that Category II items for export could be considered as part of Category I if range were exchanged for payload would also be considered.
 
c) Paragraph 9 stated that the following factors would be considered in evaluating possible exports of controlled items:
 
i) the requirement for preventing proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
 
ii) the capabilities and objectives of the missile and space programs of the importing state
 
iii) the significance of the transfer in terms of the likelihood for development of missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction.
 
iv) the assessment of the declared end use of the items.
 
v) the applicability of relevant multilateral agreements.

31. Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations Order (Prikaz) No. 882, 12/7/93, "On Instructions for the Registration and Delivery of Documents."

32. Presidential Decree No. 1007, 5/23/94, "On the Abolition of the Quota and Licensing System for Exporting Goods and Services."

This decree abolished the general system of quotas and licensing for the export of goods from the Russian Federation, except for those goods and services corresponding to the international obligations of the Russian Federation.

33. State Customs Committee Order No. 230, 5/26/94, [registered with Justice Ministry as Order No. 596 on 6/9/94], "Instructions on Operative and Centralized Control Over the Import and Export of Licensed Goods."

According to these instructions, customs clearance is controlled on three levels:
a) by the customs office releasing goods as licensed;
 
b) by regional the customs office where the owner of the license is registered;
 
c) by the Customs Committee.[15]

34. Government Resolution No. 632, 6/5/94, "On Approval and Submission for Consideration by the President of the Russian Federation of a Proposal for Revising and Enlarging the List of Disease Agents, Their Genetically Altered Forms and Fragments of Genetic Material Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons."

This resolution proposed a revised control list for exports of dual-use biological agents.

35. Presidential Directive No. 298 rp, 6/14/94, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Stimulants of Diseases (Pathogens) of Man, Animals, and Plants, and Their Genetically Altered Forms, Fragments of Genetic Material, and Equipment Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons. List of Agents (Pathogens) of Human, Animal and Plant Diseases, Their Genetically Altered Forms, Fragments of Genetic Material and Equipment Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

This directive replaced Presidential Directive No. 711 rp, 11/17/92. It approved a revised control list for exports of dual-use biological agents. The list was developed in accordance with the June 1993 recommendations of the Australia Group. The expanded list contained 20 viruses, four Rickettsia, 16 bacteria, 14 toxins, and two definitions of genetically altered microorganisms that are dangerous for humans and animals; 15 viruses, one bacteria, and one definition of genetically altered microorganisms that are dangerous for animals; one virus, four bacteria, eight microscopic fungi, and one definition of genetically altered microorganisms that are dangerous for plants; and ten categories of equipment.

36. Government Resolution No. 758, 7/1/94, "On Measures for the Improvement of Government Regulations of the Export of Goods and Services."

This resolution was a response to Presidential Decree No. 1007 (5/23/94), which abolished a general system of quotas and licensing. The decree clarified that the export of certain goods was still controlled. Appendix Two listed those goods the export of which must be carried out in a specific manner, including nuclear and radioactive material.

37. Government Resolution No. 928, 8/12/94, "On Approval of the Agreement Concerning Re-exports and the Procedures for Issuing Re-export Permits."

38. Government Resolution No. 1005, 8/30/94, "On the Organization of Export Controls in the Russian Federation."

This resolution expanded the role of the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control (VEK) in the sphere of export controls. In particular, VEK was designated to provide staff support for the Export Control Commission, taking over the responsibilities from the Department of Export Controls at the Ministry of Economics. This authorized the VEK to receive applications from economic entities requesting findings on the eligibility for export of selected types of raw materials, materials, equipment, technologies, scientific-technical information and services which can be used to develop weapons of mass destruction, their missile delivery systems and other dangerous types of weapons. The resolution also created the position of Deputy Director of the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control.

39. Presidential Decree No. 1923, 9/15/94, "On Priority Measures for Improvement of a System of Accountancy and Protection of Nuclear Materials."

Among other measures to improve control and accountancy of nuclear materials, this decree called on the Cabinet of Ministers to implement measures to reinforce customs and border efforts to prevent illegal transit of nuclear materials. It also called on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other ministries and agencies to negotiate and coordinate cooperation with the CIS and Baltic states in the sphere of nuclear control and accountancy, and transit of nuclear materials between countries.

40. Government Resolution No. 1098, 9/26/94, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating the Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Stimulants of Diseases (Pathogens) of Man, Animals, and Plants, and Their Genetically Altered Forms, Fragments of Genetic Material, and Equipment Which Can Be Used to Develop Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons."

This resolution replaced Government Resolution No. 892, 11/20/92. In accordance with Presidential Directive 298 rp, 6/14/94, this resolution approved revised export and licensing procedures for dual-use biological agents and related equipment.

41. Government Resolution No. 1136, 10/6/94, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to the Statute Regulating Exports and Imports of Nuclear Materials, Technology, Equipment, Plant, Non-nuclear Materials, Radioactive Sources of Ionizing Radiation and Isotope Products."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Regulation No. 574 from 5/8/96.) This resolution amended Government Resolution No. 1005 from 12/21/92, to account for the new export control principles of neptunium-237 that were introduced to the Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines at the Madrid meeting in April 1994. New wording in the statute also states that "a final decision on the granting of a license for nuclear exports from the Russian Federation may only be made if there is complete certainty that the items of the said exports will not promote the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the manufacture of a nuclear explosive."

42. Gosatomnadzor Departmental Order (Prikaz) No. 128, 11/14/94, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Issuance of Temporary Permits by the State Committee for the Supervision of Nuclear and Radiation Safety (Gosatomnadzor) for Activities Related to Exports or Imports of Nuclear Materials, Technology, Equipment, Assemblies, Specialized Non-Nuclear Materials, Radioactive Waste, and Spent Nuclear Materials." [endorsed by A. Gutzalov, First Deputy Chairman of Gosatomnadzor]

This order defined procedures by which Gosatomnadzor issues temporary permits for each contract (including amendments to contracts) involving import or export of nuclear items. The statute states that decisions to issue temporary permits must be based on proper provisions for nuclear and radiation safety, compliance with existing regulations and international nonproliferation obligations, and Gosatomnadzor inspections. An appendix defines and lists categories of nuclear items. This order assigned Gosatomnadzor a greater level of authority in the process of nuclear export licensing compared to the statute approved in Council of Ministers Resolution No. 1005 (12/21/92), due to a lack of clarity in these procedures outlining the role of Gosatomnadzor.[16]

43. Presidential Directive No. 621 rp, 12/7/94, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Chemical Substances, Equipment, and Technologies Which Have Peaceful Purposes, but Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons. List of Chemical Substances, Equipment, and Technologies Which Have a Peaceful Purpose but Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

This directive replaced Presidential Directive No. 508 rp, 9/16/92. It approved a revised control list for exports of dual-use chemical substances, equipment, and technologies. The expanded list contained 41 chemical substances, two categories of equipment with 11 specific types of equipment, and three categories of technology with 51 specific technologies which require a license for export.

44. Government Resolution No. 50, 1/16/95, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Control of Exports From the Russian Federation of Civilian-Use Chemicals, Equipment, and Technology Which Can Be Used to Develop Chemical Weapons."

This resolution replaced Government Resolution No. 734, 9/18/92. In accordance with Presidential Directive 621 rp, 12/7/94, this resolution approved revised export licensing procedures for dual-use chemical substances, equipment, and technology. The statute states that Russia will not export or re-export dual-use chemical items to countries that are in violation of the Geneva Protocol on the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, of 17 June 1925. The statute also clarifies and elaborates on the procedures for licensing and carrying out the export, temporary transfer, or re-export of dual-use chemical items from the Russian Federation.

45. Government Resolution No. 238, 3/7/95, "On The Approval of the List of Enterprises and Organizations Among Which are Particularly Radiation-Hazardous and Nuclear-Hazardous Plants and Sites Carrying Out Development, Production, Use, Storage, Transportation, Recovery of Nuclear Weapons and Their Components, and Radiation-Hazardous Materials and Articles."

This resolution defined the nuclear enterprises and facilities which are considered by the government to be the most dangerous with respect to the development of nuclear weapons. The sites include 57 Minatom enterprises; 16 "Radon" enterprises for the storage and processing of nuclear waste; 7 Ministry of Defense Industries enterprises (most of which are connected with the shipbuilding and the Russian Navy); 3 Ministry of Health enterprises; 2 Ministry of Transportation enterprises; 2 enterprises of the State Committee for Institutions of Higher Education; 2 Russian Research Centers; 1 enterprise of the State Committee for Chemical and Petrochemical Industry; and all military units, institutions, and organizations having nuclear ammunition, nuclear power plants, and nuclear research reactors. These sites are to receive priority funding from the government.

46. Government Resolution No. 288, 3/22/95, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to the Statute Regulating Control of Exports and Imports of Nuclear Materials, Technology, Equipment, and Plants, Special Non-nuclear Materials, Radioactive Sources of Ionizing Radiation, and Isotope Products."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 574 from 5/8/96.) This resolution further amended the statute approved by Government Resolution No. 1005 on 12/21/92, and later amended by Government Resolution No. 1136, 10/6/94. Revisions state that export and import licenses issued by the MFER for certain subgroups of nuclear items must first be approved by Minatom, while others must be approved by one of the regional stable isotope centers under the auspices of the Russian Federal Nuclear Center.

47. Presidential Directive No. 193 rp, 4/25/95, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons. List of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons, the Export of Which is Controlled and Accomplished by Licenses."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Presidential Decree 1194, 8/16/96.) This directive replaced point One of Presidential Directive 20 rp, 1/11/93, and replaced Presidential Directive No. 744 rp, 11/19/93. It approved a revised control list for exports of equipment, materials, and technologies used to produce missiles. Category I of the list contained complete rocket systems, equipment, and technologies that are used to develop missiles able to carry payloads weighing at least 500 kg for 300 km or more. Category II of the list contained complete rocket systems, materials, equipment, and technology that are used to develop missiles able to carry payloads for 300 km or more, that are not included in Category I.[17] The new list was created to reflect the new MTCR parameters adopted at the 12/93 MTCR plenary meeting in Interlochen.[18]

48. Government Resolution No. 521, 5/24/95, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to the Statute Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons."

This resolution further amended the statute approved by Government Resolution No. 70 on 1/27/93, and later amended by Government Resolution No. 1178, 11/19/93. The revisions merely acknowledge that the statute is to be carried out according to Presidential Directive No. 193 rp rather than No. 20 rp, and reflect changes in the administrative agencies named in the original licensing guidelines.

49. Government Resolution No. 556, 6/3/95, "On Adopting Changes and Additions to Certain Decisions of the Russian Federation Cabinet of Ministers."

THIS DECREE IS NO LONGER IN FORCE. (Replaced by Government Resolution No. 575, 5/8/96.) In accordance with Presidential Decree No. 66, 1/10/94, and Government Resolution No. 1005, 8/30/94, this resolution replaces all references to the Ministry of Economics with the Federal Service for Currency and Export Controls in Government Resolutions No. 68 (1/27/93), No. 1030 (10/11/93), No. 1157 (11/15/93), and No. 197 (3/10/94).

50. Government Resolution No. 1192, 12/4/95, "On the Status of Representatives of the Customs Committee in Foreign Countries."

51. Presidential Decree No. 1343, 12/31/95, "On Abolishing the Customs Control along the Russian Federation’s Border with the Republic of Kazakhstan."

52. Government Resolution No. 124, 2/8/96, "On Approval and Submission for Consideration by the President of the Russian Federation of a Proposal for the List of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-Nuclear Materials, and Related Technologies, Whose Export is Controlled."

This resolution proposed a control list for exports of nuclear materials, equipment, special non-nuclear materials, and related technologies.

53. Government Resolution No. 142, 2/12/96, "On Approval and Submission for Consideration by the President of the Russian Federation of a Proposal for Revising and Enlarging the List of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes, Whose Export Is Controlled."

This resolution proposed a revised control list for exports of dual-use equipment, materials and related technologies applied for nuclear purposes.

54. Presidential Decree No. 202, 2/14/96, "On Approval of the List of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-Nuclear Materials, and Related Technologies, Falling under Export Control. List of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-Nuclear Materials, and Related Technologies, Falling under Export Control."

This decree approved a control list for exports of nuclear materials, equipment, and technology. This list provided a more thorough listing of nuclear materials than the list of definitions contained in Appendix One of Government Resolution No. 1005, 12/21/92. In order to reconcile the list with the Nuclear Suppliers Group trigger list of controlled items, isotopes and isotope-based items were included.[19] Radioactive sources of ionizing radiation and isotope products were removed from the original list, requiring special licensing procedures to be developed for these items (see Government Resolution No. 291, 3/16/96).

55. Presidential Decree No. 228, 2/21/96, "On Control of Export From the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes, the Export of Which is Controlled. List of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes, the Export of Which is Controlled."

This decree replaced Presidential Directive No. 827 rp, 12/28/92. In accordance with Article 16 of the Federal Law on the State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activity, this decree approved a revised control list for exports of dual-use nuclear items, and instructed the Cabinet of Ministers to draft new procedures for the control of export of these commodities. The list is consistent with the list of nuclear dual-use items identified in the Annex to the Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines.[20]

56. Government Resolution No. 258, 3/6/96, "On Measures to Implement the Russian Federation Presidential Decree of December 31, 1995 `On Abolishing Customs Control Along the Russian Federation’s Border With the Republic of Kazakhstan.’"

This decree set forth the practical measures required for the abolition of customs control along the Russian-Kazakhstani border, in accordance with the agreement on a Customs Union signed between the two countries in January 1995. The Russian Federation State Customs Committee was tasked with organizing a plan for joint customs control along the external borders of Customs Union member states. The Ministry of Economics, Ministry of Finance and State Customs Committee were tasked with proposing necessary funding for customs control along the external borders. Other ministries and government bodies were charged with other logistical questions, such as decommissioning of customs facilities infrastructure at the border and finding new employment for laid-off Customs personnel.

57. Government Resolution No. 291, 3/16/96, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Exports and Imports of Radioactive Substances and Radioactive Substances-Based Products."

In accordance with the Federal Law on Utilization of Nuclear Power," this resolution approved the export and import licensing procedures for radioactive sources of ionizing radiation and isotope products. These procedures replaced guidelines for import and export of radioactive sources of ionizing radiation and isotope products contained in the following: Government Resolution No. 1005, 12/21/92, Government Resolution No. 1136, 10/6/94, and Government Resolution No. 288, 3/22/95. Amendments were also made to Government Regulations No. 854, 11/6/92, and No. 758, 7/1/94. Points One and Two of the statute state which subgroups of the Foreign Economic Activity Commodity Code contain controlled items, and which items are not controlled under the procedure. The resolution defined the export licensing authority and guidelines for the controlled items.
 
a) Licenses for trade in controlled materials are issued by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, on the basis of applications submitted in accordance with guidelines established by the Ministry of Health and Medical Industry for imports of radioactive sources of ionizing radiation and isotope products for medical purposes, or by Minatom for imports and exports of all such items not designated for medical purposes.
 
b) Licenses may only be granted to those entities that have appropriate permits from Gosatomnadzor for activities involving the controlled materials.
 
c) Controlled items are subject to customs control by the State Customs Committee, and violations of the statute are subject to prosecution.

58. State Customs Committee Order No. 148, 3/19/96, "On Regulating the Registration of Contracts for Export of Goods in the Russian Federation."

59. Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations Order No. 162, 4/1/96, "On the Procedures for Export from and Import into the Russian Federation of Radioactive Materials and Products Made From Radioactive Materials."

60. State Customs Committee Order No. 277, 5/7/96, "On the Procedures for the Import into and Export from the Russian Federation of Radioactive Materials and Products Made From Radioactive Materials."

61. Government Resolution No. 574, 5/8/96, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Exports and Imports of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-nuclear Materials, and Related Technologies."

This resolution replaced Government Resolutions No. 1005, 12/21/92, No. 1136, 10/6/94, and No. 288, 3/22/95. In accordance with the Federal Law On the Use of Nuclear Energy, the resolution approved new procedures for exporting nuclear materials contained in the list approved by Presidential Decree No. 202, 2/12/96. The resolution also instructed the Foreign Ministry to notify the IAEA of Russia’s compliance with changes introduced to Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines at the Helsinki session in 4/95. This Resolution introduced significant changes to Russia’s export process for critical nuclear items. The statute clearly established that the Ministry of Atomic Energy is not the sole organization responsible for approving nuclear exports, but must share this responsibility with Eksportkontrol. [For a detailed explanation of the licensing procedure outlined in this decree, please see Section IV of this report, "Export Licensing Process."] The most significant points introduced in this statute include:
 
a) Nuclear materials are defined as HEU enriched to 20% or higher, plutonium, spent fuel reprocessing plants, isotope separation plants, plants for the production of heavy water, enriched uranium and plutonium conversion plants, major components for such plants, and relevant technologies.
 
b) Negotiations with a foreign state on a contract involving the export of nuclear materials can only be conducted with the express permission of the Cabinet of Ministers.
 
c) Nuclear materials can only be exported to non-nuclear-weapon-states if the importing state puts the material under full-scope IAEA safeguards. Exports to both nuclear weapons states and non-nuclear-weapon states require that the importing state give assurances that the material will not be used for nuclear weapons, that physical protection will be maintained at not less than the level required by the IAEA, and that the material will not be re-exported without written permission from the Ministry of Atomic Energy and the approval of Eksportkontrol.
 
d) Licenses for export of nuclear material will only be issued by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations after approval of both the Ministry of Atomic Energy and Eksportkontrol. Previously, only approval from the Ministry of Atomic Energy was needed.

62. Government Resolution No. 575, 5/8/96, "On Approval of the Statute Regulating Export From the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, and Related Technologies Applied for Nuclear Purposes."

This resolution replaced Government Resolution No. 68, 1/27/93 and the portion of Government Resolution No. 556, 6/3/95 that amended No. 68. In accordance with Presidential Decree No. 228, 2/21/96, the resolution approved new procedures for the export of items from the list of nuclear related dual-use equipment, materials, and technologies. The resolution also instructed the Foreign Ministry to notify the IAEA of Russia’s compliance with changes introduced to Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines at the Helsinki session in 4/95 and the Vienna consultative conference in 10/95. Unlike the guidelines for critical nuclear export (outlined in Government Resolution No. 574, above), only the approval of Eksportkontrol is necessary for the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations to issue an export license. The most significant point made in this statute is as follows: The export of dual-use equipment, material, and technology is prohibited to non-nuclear weapon states if it is to be used in the creation of nuclear explosive devices or if it is to be used in any component of the nuclear fuel cycle that is not under IAEA safeguards. In addition, the export of dual-use items is prohibited if there is an unacceptable risk that such activities might take place, or if the export in any way threatens the goal of nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

63. Ministry of Foreign Economic Affairs Order No. 301, 5/17/96, "On Control of Exports and Imports of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-Nuclear Materials and Related Technology."

64. Ministry of Foreign Economic Affairs Order No. 302, 5/17/96, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation Equipment and Dual-Use Materials and Technology Applied for Nuclear Purposes, the Export of Which is Controlled."

65. State Customs Committee Order No. 315, 5/23/96, "On Control Over the Export of Goods, Which Could Be Used in the Creation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missile Means of Their Delivery."

66. State Customs Committee Order No. 402, 6/27/96, "On the Procedures for the Export and Import of Nuclear Materials, Equipment, Special Non-Nuclear Materials, and Related Technologies."

This Customs Order is an internal customs regulation which implements, from the perspective of the Customs Committee, the control list for critical nuclear items (Presidential Decree No. 202) and the licensing and export procedures for those items (Government Regulation No. 574).

67. Presidential Decree No. 1177, 8/14/96, "On the Structure of the Federal Organs of the Executive Branch."

This decree introduced a number of major changes into the bureaucratic structure of the executive branch and greatly reduced the number of government bodies. Most significantly for the system of Russian export controls, the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control (the working group for Eksportkontrol) was dissolved. Some of its functions were reassigned to the Ministry of Finance, and some to the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations. Before this change could be implemented, however, the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control was reinstated (see Presidential Decree No. 1611, below).

68. Presidential Decree No. 1194, 8/16/96, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons."

This decree replaced Presidential Directive No. 193 rp from 4/25/95. It approved a new control list for exports of equipment, materials, and technologies used to produce missiles, in accordance with Russia’s accession to the MTCR in 1995. The decree also instructed the Cabinet of Ministers to draw up a new statute of procedures for the control of the export of equipment, materials, and technologies used in the production of missiles.

69. Presidential Decree No. 1268, 8/26/96, "On Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies."

This decree noted the commitment of the Russian Federation to its international obligations regarding the control of exports of dual-use military goods and technologies, specifically in accordance with the principles agreed to in Wassenaar Arrangement.

70. Government Resolution No. 1100, 9/13/96, "On Amending the Statute Regulating Exports from the Russian Federation of Equipment, Materials, and Technology Employed to Develop Missile Weapons."

In accordance with Presidential Decree No. 1194, 8/16/96, this resolution amended Government Resolution No. 70, 1/27/93 so that it refers to Presidential Decree No. 1194 instead of Presidential Directive No. 193, 4/25/95.

71. Government Resolution No. 1172, 10/7/96, "On Regulating Control of Exports from the Russian Federation of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, the Export of Which is Controlled."

This resolution implements Presidential Decree No. 1268.

72. Government Resolution No. 1299, 10/31/96, "On the Procedure for Conducting Competitions and Auctions Related to the Sale of Quotas in the Introduction of Quantitative Limits and in the Licensing for Export and Import of Goods (Work, Services) in the Russian Federation."

73. Presidential Decree No. 1611, 11/29/96, "On Additions and Changes to Presidential Decree No. 1177 from 14 August 1996 `On the Structure of the Federal Organs of Executive Power.’"

This decree reinstates the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control as a Ministerial-level executive body. It had been dissolved in August 1996 during a major bureaucratic reshuffling in which many government bodies were dissolved and their functions reassigned.
 
Sources:
[1] The full text of all documents listed are available in the original Russian or in English translation upon request.
[2] Elina Kirichenko, "Evolution of the Russian Nonproliferation Export Controls," The Monitor (Summer 1995), pp. 8-11.
[3] Over the course of the next two years, a number of Presidential Directives approving control lists were adopted in accordance with this decree,.
[4] See IAEA document INFCIRC/254/Rev.1/Part 2, July 1992.
[5] The designation rp stands for rasporyazheniya presidenta, which means "presidential directive."
[6] Elina Kirichenko and William Potter, "Nuclear Export Controls in Russia: The Players and the Process," Center for Nonproliferation Studies and Institute of World Economy and International Relations, working draft, (April 1996).
[7] Ibid.
[8] Elina Kirichenko, "Nuclear Nonproliferation Export Controls of Russia," paper written for the NIS Nonproliferation Project, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 1993. For the Nuclear Suppliers Group list, see IAEA document INFCIRC/254/Rev.1/Part 2, July 1992.
[9] The parameters of Categories I and II are explained most explicitly in the statute approved by Government Resolution No. 70, 1/27/93.
[10] Discussions with Wyn Bowen, Senior Research Associate, Center for Nonproliferation Studies.
[11] Bowen. Please refer to changes in the licensing guidelines made in Government Resolution No. 1178, 11/19/93.
[12] The revised parameters of Categories I and II are explained most explicitly in the statute approved by Government Resolution No. 1178, 11/19/93.
[13] Bowen.
[14] Bowen.
[15] Yelena Budayeva, "The Russian System of Customs Control;" in G. Bertsch and I. Khripunov, Russia’s Nonproliferation and Conventional Weapons Export Controls (1995 Annual Report).
[16] Kirichenko and Potter, "Nuclear Export Controls..."
[17] The parameters of Categories I and II are explained most explicitly in the statute approved by Government Resolution No. 1178, 11/19/93.
[18] Elina Kirichenko, "Evolution of the Russian..."
[19] Ibid. For the Nuclear Suppliers Group list, see IAEA document INFCIRC/254/Rev.1/Part 1/Mod.2, April 1994.
[20] Ibid. For the Nuclear Suppliers Group list, see IAEA document INFCIRC/254/Rev.1/Part 2, July 1992.

Last updated May 1997
For more recent updates, see the Russia:  Export Control Developments file.

Comments or questions? Contact Kenley Butler at MIIS CNS: Kenley.Butler@miis.edu

This material is produced independently for NTI by the Center for Nonproliferation Studies at the Monterey Institute of International Studies and does not necessarily reflect the opinions of and has not been independently verified by NTI or its directors, officers, employees, agents. Copyright © 2002 by MIIS.

HOME  |  CONTACT US  |  SITE MAP