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Ukraine: Nuclear Material and MPC&A Developments

5/30/2002: ANTI-TERROR EXERCISE AT RIVNE NPP
A two-day exercise designed to practice the defense of NPPs against terrorist attacks began on 30 May 2002 at Rivne NPP. Exercise participants included plant personnel, local authorities, law enforcement agencies, and an anti-terrorist center. Shortly before the anti-terrorism exercise the Rivne NPP underwent a firefighting exercise.
[ITAR-TASS, 30 May 2002; in "Ukraine: Anti-terror exercises held at Rovno nuclear power plant facilities," FBIS Document CEP20020530000192.] {Entered 6/13/2002 MJ}
 
4/21/2002: DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY MAY IMPROVE NPP SECURITY
UNIAN reported on 21 April 2002 that the US Department of Energy has been studying the possibility of further cooperation with Ukraine to improve the security of its nuclear power plants. As part of this effort the Khmelnytskyy NPP was visited by a group of Nuclear National Security Administration (NNSA) experts who assessed the security needs of Ukrainian nuclear facilities and the equipment requirements of Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) troops responsible for their protection, and discussed the possibility of cooperation on improving physical protection of nuclear sites.
["SShA pomogut Ukraine usovershenstvovat okhranu Khmelnitskoy NPP," UNIAN, No. 016 (208), 15-21 April 2002.] {Entered 6/13/2002 MJ}

11/2/2001: IAEA CRITICIZES UKRAINIAN NUCLEAR MATERIAL CONTROL
At a press conference on 2 November 2001, IAEA General Director Mohamed el Baradei said that nuclear and radioactive materials in former Soviet states, including Ukraine, may be seized by terrorists with relative ease. The level of nuclear and radioactive materials control and protection was insufficient, according to el Baradei, and although such materials could not be used to construct nuclear weapons, they could be used to produce radiation dispersal devices, also known as "dirty bombs." El Baradei called for developing additional methods of protecting nuclear sites and materials, and more extensive IAEA oversight.
["MAGATE prichislilo Ukrainu k spisku gosudarstv, ne imeyushchikh adekvatnogo kontrolya nad yadernymi materialami," UNIAN, No. 044 (184), 29 October-4 November 2001.] {Entered 6/13/2002 MJ}
 
5/28/99: US ENERGY OFFICIALS VISIT TRAINING CENTER AT THE INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR RESEARCH IN KIEV
During their visit to Kiev, US Deputy Secretary of Energy T.J. Glauthier and Assistant Secretary of Energy Rose Gottemoeller toured the upgraded MPC&A system at the VVR-M research reactor and the George Kuzmycz Training Center for Physical Protection and Control of Nuclear Materials at the Institute of Nuclear Research. Glauthier was satisfied with the functioning of the Training Center and recognized its contribution to prevention of nuclear materials smuggling. According to the Training Center's Director, Viktor Havrylyuk, since its creation in October 1998, the facility has trained over 500 specialists from the Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Security Service, the State Export Control Service of Ukraine, scientific research facilities, and the energy sector. The US DOE allocated $4 million for the MPC&A upgrades and the training center.
["Sredstva, predostavlennyye Ukraine po programe Nanna-Lugara, ispolzuyutsya po naznacheniyu, schitayut amerikanskiye chinovniki," UNIAN, 24 - 30 May 1999, No. 21.] {Entered 8/19/99 SK}
 
1/28/99: KHARKIV INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCES NEW MPC&A SYSTEM
As of January 1999, the Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology had established a new MPC&A system. The system was established with assistance from the US Department of Energy's MPC&A program. According to Oleksandr Volobuyev, the institute's academic secretary, the new system meets international standards. Most of the equipment for the system realizaton is being provided by the US company Advantor Corporation. The commissioning ceremony for the new system was attended by US and IAEA officials.
["V natsionalnom nauchnom tsentre 'Kharkovskiy fizikotekhnicheskiy institut' ustanovlena novaya sistema ucheta, kontrolya i fizicheskoy zashchity yadernykh materialov," UNIAN, 24 - 30 January 1999, No. 4.]  {Entered 8/19/99 SK}
 
10/9/98: TRAINING CENTER OPENED AT THE INSTITUTE OF NUCLEAR RESEARCH
As part of an agreement between the US Defense Department and Ukraine's Ministry of the Environment and Nuclear Safety, a center for training specialists in the area of nuclear material control and accounting was established at the Institute of Nuclear Research in Kiev. The center, funded by the US government, is part of an effort to build a state system to prevent proliferation. The trainees will consist of experts from various Ukrainian ministries, Energoatom, the Security Service, nuclear power stations, and research centers.
[UNIAN, 9 October 1998; in "Training Center For Monitoring Of Nuclear Materials Opens," Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, online edition, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.] {Entered 10/12/98 SK}
 
11/12/96: IAEA MEMBER STATES WILL PROVIDE TECHNICAL AID TO UKRAINE TO PREVENT NUCLEAR SMUGGLING
Member states of the IAEA agreed to provide Ukraine with technical aid in order to prevent nuclear smuggling. According to information received from the Ukrainian Ministry of Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety's nuclear control directorate, the IAEA member states formulated the program of technical aid providing for the delivery of special monitoring equipment, which will be used on the Ukrainian borders to detect smuggled nuclear materials. The nuclear control directorate and the State Committee for Defense of Ukrainian State Borders will jointly submit a list of the required equipment. According to First Deputy Minister for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety Oleksandr Smyshlyayev, who is also head of the nuclear control directorate at the Ministry, member states of the IAEA will continue to provide financial aid to Ukraine for physical protection, accounting, and monitoring of nuclear materials under the terms and conditions of Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT).
[UNIAN, 11/12/96, in "IAEA To Help in Prevention of Nuclear Smuggling," FBIS-TAC-96-010, 11/12/96.] {Entered 12/19/96 GN}
  
3/20/96: US NATIONAL LABORATORIES ASSIST UKRAINE IN DEVELOPING PHYSICAL PROTECTION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS
A team from Sandia and Argonne National Laboratories in the United States is assisting Ukraine in developing effective physical protection regulatory oversight and effective physical protection support for nuclear materials and facilities. Installation of equipment at all facilities probably will not conclude until FY97.
[TESTIMONY FROM SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES, "Protection And Surveillance Of Nuclear Materials In The Former Soviet Union," HEARINGS BEFORE THE SENATE PERMANENT SUBCOMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS, COMMITTEE ON GOVERNMENTAL AFFAIRS, pp. 21-22.]
 
3/13/96: UKRAINIAN NOTE VERBALE TO THE IAEA ON NUCLEAR EXPORT POLICIES
The Permanent Mission of Ukraine to the IAEA presented a note verbale to the Director General of the IAEA providing information on the nuclear export policies and practices of the Government of Ukraine. The note verbale emphasizes that the Ukrainian Government, "when considering the transfer of nuclear material, equipment and related technology, including nuclear-related dual-use equipment, material and related technology," will comply with IAEA safeguards provisions (INFCIRC/254/Rev.2/Part 1 and INFCIRC/254/Rev.2/Part 2.).
["Communication Of 13 March 1996 Received From The Permanent Mission Of Ukraine To The International Atomic Energy Agency," IAEA-INFCIRC/505, 3/27/96.] {Entered 9/7/96 GN}
 
3/13/96: SEVERAL UKRAINIAN INSTITUTES HAVE MORE NUCLEAR MATERIALS THEN DECLARED
According to Andriy Glukhov, the Nuclear Regulatory Administration recently discovered that the Naval Academy in Sevastopol had more nuclear material than it originally had declared. The Ministry of Defense had control over a separate laboratory where this material was kept and did not provide the Administration access to this material. Radon, an industrial radioactive waste management plant in Kiev, was also recently found to have depleted uranium at its facilities. Glukhov also reported that the Kiev Institute of Nuclear Research, the Naval Academy, and the Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology all have enriched uranium with enrichment levels up to 90%. The Kharkiv Institute declared that it has 4 tons of uranium, and almost one ton of this is enriched uranium that includes highly enriched uranium. This information has not yet been verified.
[STATEMENT OF ANDRIY GLUKHOV, PROJECT MANAGER, BATTELLE, BEFORE THE SENATE SUBCOMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS, COMMITTEE ON GOVERNMENTAL AFFAIRS, 3/13/96.]
 
3/1/96: US AID FOR NUCLEAR SECURITY INCREASES
The United States will spend $330 million over the next six years to finance the installation of monitoring and surveillance equipment at sites where fissionable materials are stored in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Latvia, Uzbekistan, and Russia. US aid for nuclear security has increased from $2 million in 1994 to $70 million in 1995 and is expected to be $100 million in 1996.
[Scott Parrish, "US Boosts Nuclear Security Aid To Former Soviet Republics," OMRI DAILY DIGEST, 3/1/96.]
 
2/13/96: FINNISH AID FOR UKRAINE
In 1996, Ukraine will receive 1.5 million Finnish marks in aid from Finland to create a state system to register nuclear materials. In 1995, Finland provided Ukraine with 2 million Finnish marks for the same purpose.
["Finland To Provide Aid To Register Nuclear Materials," UNIAN, 2/13/96.]
 
2/1/96: UKRAINIAN-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT ON NUCLEAR MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION
Ukraine and Russia concluded an agreement defining the procedures for transportation of nuclear materials, including spent and fresh nuclear fuel, which should be ratified in 3/96. The agreement considers security precautions, physical protection, and compensation for damages resulting from possible incidents in transit. The country in which the incident took place will be responsible for damages. Ukrainian experts feel this puts Ukraine at an advantage as most spent fuel from Ukrainian NPPs is shipped across Russian territory.
["Ukraine, Russia Agree On Nuclear Substance Transit," UPRESA DAILY DIGEST, 1/24/96.]
 
12/9/95: UKRAINIAN TROOPS GUARANTEE SAFETY OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
While in Kirovohrad, Defense Minister Valeriy Shmarov asserted that Ukrainian troops transporting nuclear weapons to Russia could guarantee the complete safety of their cargo.
["Yaderna Zbroya Pid Kontrolem," Holos Ukrainy, 12/9/95, p. 2.]
 
6/21/95: MC&A IMPROVEMENTS IN UKRAINE
MC&A improvements have been taking place at several sites in Ukraine, including the Kharkiv Physical Technical Institute, the South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant, the Sevastopol Naval College Research Reactors, and the Kiev Institute of Nuclear Research. MC&A and Physical Protection site surveys are currently being performed. These surveys will build on a joint visit by the United States and the IAEA in March 1995 at Kharkiv, performed to determine requirements for establishing an MC&A system.
Sources:
[1] DOE Public Information, Office of Nonproliferation and National Security, January 27, 1995.
[2] Communication with Department of Energy official, June 21, 1995.
 
6/19/95: WHILE PROVIDING ASSISTANCE, US TEAM MEETS DIFFICULTIES
The Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety has taken over responsibility from the UkrSCNRS for the MC&A and Physical Protection agreement under the Nunn-Lugar program. The pace of implementation has increased since 12/94. A number of computers have been received at the Kiev offices as well as at the nuclear facilities themselves. Physical Protection equipment, such as metal detectors, has been installed in the South Ukraine plant and at the research reactor at the Kiev Nuclear Research Institute. Another agreement is pending for assistance at the Kharkiv Physical Technical Institute and the research reactor at Sevastopol. An initial site survey of Kharkiv was to have taken place by the end of 6/95. US teams encountered some difficulties when requesting access to closed sites.
Sources:
[1] CISNP interview with Ukrainian official, Kiev, 6/19/95.
[2] Nikolai Steinberg, "Information Note on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials and Facilities," a study prepared for CISNP, 6/95.
 
6/12/95: TEN RADIOACTIVE SOURCES LOST IN DONETSK MINE ADMINISTRATION
In the Donetsk mine administration Chervone Zirka, where 32 ionizing radiation sources are used, storage facilities are not equipped with any alarm systems. Ten radioactive sources have disappeared from oblast enterprises in the past two years, according to Tetiana Bylovol of the Public Prosecutor's office.
[Olha Burda, "Special to INTELNEWS," INTELNEWS, 6/12/95.]
 
6/95:VIOLATIONS OF PROCEDURE ARE TO BE RECORDED IN STATE SYSTEM OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS ACCOUNTING
According to the Convention on the physical Protection of Nuclear Materials (Chapter 1, Article 5), it is mandatory to record in the state system of nuclear materials accounting any incidents of breaks in standard operating procedure which are reported to the IAEA. Nuclear materials are also subject to a control system of use, storage, and transport, which is all within the jurisdiction of the Ministry for Environmental Protection and Nuclear Safety as documented in passage 4, item 3 of the Ministry statute.
[Nikolai Steinberg, "Information Note on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials and Facilities," study prepared for CISNP, 6/95.]
 
5/18/95: NO SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENTS IN PHYSICAL PROTECTION ARE MADE IN UKRAINE
A State System of Material Control and Accounting (MC&A) has been established in Ukraine but no significant improvements in Physical Protection have been made. The Office of Safeguards in the UkrSCNRS developed two documents regarding physical protection: the first set forth the basic Physical Protection requirements for nuclear materials and nuclear installations and the second, which was prepared jointly with Derzhkomatom, established a system of background checks for personnel who work at nuclear installations. One problem encountered in developing an effective system of Physical Protection is the lack of definition of a design-based threat. The United States has offered to show Ukraine its criteria for developing a design-based threat, but it cannot show Ukraine the design-base itself since it is classified.
[CISNP discussion with Ukrainian nuclear official, 5/18/95.]
 
4/1/95: SUPERSCANNER METAL DETECTORS
CTR funds provided superscanner metal detectors to academy of sciences to help with the development of an MC&A program.
["Weapons Of Mass Destruction," GAO REPORT TO CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEES, 9/95, p. 16.]
 
3/31/95: $383,000 ALLOCATED TO CONTROL USE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission reported $383,000 in expenditures for assistance to Russian and Ukrainian regulating bodies in developing programs to control the use of radioactive materials.
["Nuclear Safety: Concerns With Nuclear Facilities And Other Sources Of Radiation In The Former Soviet Union," GAO REPORT TO THE HONORABLE BOB GRAHAM, US SENATE, 11/95, p. 31.]
 
3/13/95: CABINET OF MINISTERS OUTLINES AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE FOR PHYSICAL PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Ukrainian Cabinet of Ministers' Decree no. 169 outlines the agencies responsible for protection and control of various radioactive materials. Physical protection of precious metals and by-products associated with precious metals falls under the auspices of the Ministry of Finance. The control of uranium concentrates falls under the auspices of the Committee for the Use of Atomic Energy. The Ministry of Machine Building is responsible for instrumentation and installations used with radioactive materials and isotopes. The Cabinet of Ministers is responsible for physical protection and control of arms, military supplies, military technology, explosive materials, and explosive material waste.
[Decree no. 169, The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, 3/13/95.]
 
2/10/95: DECREE INCLUDES PHYSICAL PROTECTION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS
The Presidential Decree "On Usage of Nuclear Energy and Radioactive Safety" was signed. Article 11 deals with physical protection of nuclear materials and nuclear facilities.
["Law of Ukraine," Holos Ukrainy, 4/13/95, pp. 3-9.]
 
1/28/95: KIEV GETS COMPUTER EQUIPMENT FOR MC&A
CTR funds purchased computer equipment worth $82,000 for the Nunn-Lugar MC&A Program in Ukraine.
["Weapons of Mass Destruction," GAO REPORT TO CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEES, 9/95, p. 16.]
 
1/95: UNITED STATES, SWEDEN AND FINLAND WILL COORDINATE MC&A AND PHYSICAL PROTECTION ASSISTANCE
The United States met separately with both Sweden and Finland to coordinate MC&A and Physical Protection assistance.
[DOE Public Information, Office of Nonproliferation and National Security, January 27, 1995.]
 
12/15/94: EQUIPMENT PROCURED FOR INSTALLATION AT SOUTH UKRAINIAN SITE.
DOE officials drafted MPC&A assessment reports for the South Ukraine plant. Tags, seals, metal detectors, and Special Nuclear Material (SNM) monitors are being procured for installation at this site.
[DOE Public Information, Office of Nonproliferation and National Security, 1/27/95.]
 
12/94: UKRAINE LEARNS ABOUT US METHODS OF PHYSICAL PROTECTION
As stipulated by the 12/18/93 "Agreement between The Department of Defense of the United States of America and the Ukrainian State Committee on Nuclear and Radiation Safety (UkrSCNRS) Concerning Development of State System of Control, Accounting, and Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials to Promote the Prevention of Nuclear Weapons Proliferation from Ukraine," representatives from Ukraine and the United States held discussions from 11/28/94-12/7/94 on Physical Protection and MC&A. The agreement signed in 1993 is within the Nunn-Lugar framework. At this meeting, Ukraine learned about the methods of physical protection designed in the United States, as well as the technology and equipment necessary for commercial nuclear power plants. The Ukrainians visited the Sandia and Argonne National Laboratories, the Waterford 3 nuclear power plant, and the Central Training Academy. As a result of earlier American visits to the South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant and the research reactor at the Kiev Institute of Nuclear Research, a list of equipment needed to upgrade the Ukrainian system was presented to the Ukrainians.
[Personal correspondence with Ukrainian nuclear official, 1/95.]
 
10/20/94: WESTINGHOUSE AND KHARTRON ESTABLISH JOINT VENTURE
The American company Westinghouse and the Ukrainian defense contractor Khartron, located at Kharkiv, have established a joint-venture called Westron. Khartron will own 40% of the new company that will design, build, and install an instrumentation and control (I&C) system for nuclear power plants based on Western designs. Khartron used to produce control systems for the Soviet defense industry and was chosen by the Ukrainian government as the general contractor responsible for modernizing all control systems at Ukrainian nuclear power plants. Westinghouse officials have commented that this project is designed to transfer technology for the design, manufacture, and installation of I&C to Ukraine. The $5 million grant for this project comes from the Nunn-Lugar money for defense conversion. Westinghouse is investing $20 million of its own resources in the form of new equipment and technology. Westron's focus will be on updating protection and control systems at Ukraine's 14 nuclear reactors.
Sources:
[1] Alex Brall and Ann MacLachlan, "Westinghouse and Khartron Cement Form Joint Venture in Nuclear I&C," Nucleonics Week, 10/20/94, p. 8.
[2] Matthew Kaminski, "Westinghouse Russian Venture," Financial Times, 10/13/94, p. 7.
 
10/6/94: INTERNAL SECURITY AND CONVOY TROOPS GUARD DEFENSE FACILITIES
Commander of the Internal Security and Convoy Troops Lt. Gen. Volodymyr Borysenko has stated that a major responsibility of his troops is to guard the 10 defense facilities "of special importance" as well 5 nuclear power plants in order to prevent terrorist attacks or theft of nuclear materials.
[UNIAN, 10/6/94, in FBIS-SOV-94-195, 10/6/94.]
 
8-9/94: MPC&A SURVEY IS CONDUCTED AT SOUTH UKRAINE PLANT
A Material Protection, Control, and Accounting (MPC&A) survey was conducted from 8/29-9/9 at the South Ukraine plant.
[DOE Public Information, Office of Nonproliferation and National Security, 1/27/95.]
 
8/94: UKRSCNRS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR PHYSICAL PROTECTION, EXPORT AND IMPORT OF FISSILE MATERIALS
The UkrSCNRS is responsible for the State System of Accounting and Control for nuclear materials (SSAC) that is currently being put into place; this committee is also responsible for the physical protection of fissile materials as well as certain aspects of the import and export of these materials.
["Nuclear Security in Kazakhstan and Ukraine: An Interview with Vladimir Shkolnik and Nikolai Steinberg," The Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1994, p. 45.]
 
1994: MC&A SYSTEM SUFFERS FROM LACK OF COMPUTERS
Responsibility for MC&A in Ukraine falls under the auspices of the State Committee for Nuclear and Radiation Safety. The responsibility for disseminating the information on accounting and control of nuclear material lies with the Department of Safeguards and Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials, Division of Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials. Due to a lack of a computerized accounting system, the accounting and control of nuclear materials is to be carried out strictly on paper.
[From "State Accounting And Control System For Nuclear Materials: The Creation of an Information Network for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials," Temporary Instructions HD-306 803 94, Ukrainian State Committee On Nuclear and Radiation Safety, Kiev, 1994.]
 
1994: NEW NATIONAL PHYSICAL PROTECTION RULES ADOPTED
Ukraine passed national regulations on the physical protection of nuclear materials and facilities.
[Nikolai Steinberg, "Information Note on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials and Facilities," a study prepared for CISNP, 6/95.]
 
1/94: SWEDEN TO GIVE $6.1 MILLION FOR MPC&A
Sweden approved $6.1 million in assistance to the former Soviet Union in the area of accounting and control of nuclear fuel.
[Nuclear News,  2/94. p. 50.]
 
12/30/93: UKRAINE WILL INCREASE PHYSICAL PROTECTION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS
President Leonid Kravchuk ordered increased physical protection over Ukraine's nuclear materials and nuclear installations amid widespread concern over attempts to smuggle nuclear materials from the country. The Security Service and Interior Ministry have been put in charge of investigating cases of missing or stolen radioactive materials and of monitoring security procedures at Ukraine's five nuclear power stations.
["Ukraine Tightens Control Over Nuclear Materials," REUTER (Kiev), 12/30/93.]
 
12/93: SWEDISH NUCLEAR POWER INSPECTORATE PROVIDES TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
The Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate is providing technical assistance for training of UkrSCNRS staff in the usage of safeguard software and hardware.
["Status Of Preparations For Safeguards Implementation In Ukraine," SAFEGUARDS SYMPOSIUM, IAEA-SM-333/210, p.84.]
 
5/5/93: UKRAINE RATIFIES CONVENTION ON PHYSICAL PROTECTION OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS
According to Chairman of the Ukrainian State Committee for Nuclear and Radiation Safety Nikolai Steinberg, however, it has yet to go into effect.
[Yuriy Khlystun, "The Sale Of Nuclear Fuel," Kyivskie Vedomosti, 10/30/93, p. 6.]
 
1992-93: LAWS ON SECURITY SERVICES DEFINE RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PROTECTING NUCLEAR FACILITIES
"The Law on Internal and Escort Security Service" and "The Law on a National Security Service" were passed in 1992. The Ukrainian Cabinet of Ministers' Enactment "On Security of Transport Vehicles Carrying Fresh and Spent Nuclear Fuel" was passed in 1993. According to "The Law on Internal and Escort Security Service" the Main Department of Internal and Escort Forces of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is responsible for protecting nuclear facilities, nuclear materials under use, material storage, and material transport.
[Nikolai Steinberg, "Information Note on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials and Facilities," study prepared for CISNP, 6/95.]
 
1992-93: IAEA VISITS NPPs
Khmelnytsky, Rivne, and Zaporizhzhya NPPs each underwent two IAEA technical visits in 1992-93. Chornobyl and South Ukraine NPPs underwent 3 IAEA technical visits in 1992-93.
[A. Glukhov and N. Steinberg, "Status of Preparations for Safeguards Implementations in Ukraine," SAFEGUARDS SYMPOSIUM, IAEA-SM-333/210, p. 83.]
 

Last updated 16 July 2002

Comments or questions? Contact Michael Jasinski at MIIS CNS: Michael.Jasinski@miis.edu

This material is produced independently for NTI by the Center for Nonproliferation Studies at the Monterey Institute of International Studies and does not necessarily reflect the opinions of and has not been independently verified by NTI or its directors, officers, employees, agents. Copyright © 2002 by MIIS.

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