This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here. Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.
January 1991
The Chairman of the Integrated Guided Missile Program (IGMDP) management board, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, says that Indian scientists are now "studying concepts for the design of reusable launch vehicles," which might be deployed at the beginning of the 21st century. These vehicles would be developed using the expertise already gained by India in re-entry technology and propulsion systems, which could also be applied to the design of a hyperplane. Kalam says that design studies have already begun at Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) in Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) and a handful of countries have shown interest.
—Milavnews (Romford, Essex), January 1991, p. 14.
11 February 1991
India conducts third test-flight of the Prithvi-1 from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh). According to Indian defense ministry sources, the test was carried out at 12:15 p.m. and the flight met "all mission requirements." The defective inertial guidance system that led to the failure of the Prithvi during the terminal phase of the second test is replaced by a high-performance gyro, which performs "moderately well."
—"India tests medium-range surface-to-surface missile," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 12 February 1991, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 12 February 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; "India's Prithvi Strategic Ballistic Missile in Third Test," Defense & Foreign Affairs Weekly (Alexandria, VA), 18-24 February 1991, p. 5; Raj Chengappa, "End the Wink and Nudge Approach," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India Pvt. Ltd., 2000), p. 361.
22 February 1991
In an address to the Chennai Institute of Technology's Alumni Association, Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) Director Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam says that India has attained "state-of-the-art" technology in its guided missile programs. Referring to India's 22 May 1989 Agni I test, Kalam reveals that India's indigenously developed re-entry vehicle technology was fully demonstrated when the nose-cone withstood temperatures of 3,000°C. The four-directional pre-form used in the nose cone of the Agni was made of carbon-carbon material. The temperature in the Agni payload was 30°C. Kalam also states that the Prithvi will enter production in 1992. [Note: The Agni's re-entry vehicle is designed to ensure that the temperature inside the vehicle does not exceed 60°C, a condition necessary to protect the warhead and electronic systems placed inside. The re-entry vehicle consists of "five sections." Each of these sections is made up of a "two-layer composite construction." The "inner layer is made up of carbon/epoxy filament mould" constructed on a "CNC winding machine." The inner layer is designed to bear structural loads. The outer layer is made up of "carbon/phenolic filament wound construction," and "cured in an autoclave at 7 bar pressure." The outer layer is designed to bear thermal loads.]
—"Our missile technology is most modern: Kalam," Hindu (Chennai), 2 March 1991, p. 16; Dr. N.C. Birla and B.S. Murthy, eds., "Airframe Structures & Composite Components," Indian Defence Technology: Missile Systems (DRDO, Ministry of Defence, December 1998), pp. 64-65.
March 1991
The Indian government decides to proceed with the establishment of the integrated missile test range in the Balasore district of Orissa. The decision has been hanging fire for nearly six years due to opposition from nearly 400,000 villagers threatened by displacement.
—Mahesh Uniyal, "India: 'Greens' Seek Political Voice," IPS, 7 May 1991, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 7 May 1991, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
4 July 1991
India conducts fourth test flight of the Prithvi-I from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) at 1:52 p.m. According to Indian defense minister Sharad Pawar, despite bad weather, the missile performed well.
—"Developed by DRDO," All India Radio (New Delhi), 4 July 1991; in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-91-011, 24 July 1991, p. 14; "Prithvi Missile's Surface-to-Surface Test Fired From the Sriharikota Range," AFP (Hong Kong); in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-91-011, 4 July 1991, p. 14.
7 August 1991
India conducts fifth test-flight of the Prithvi-I at 10:58 a.m. at the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh). Several types of warheads, including sub-munitions dispensers and fuel-air explosives are under development for use against different types of targets. Indian defense sources claim that the ratio of the missile's warhead weight (1,000kg over a 150km range) to launch weight is the highest for any weapon in its class. Although no mention has been made of the Prithvi's nuclear capability, Defense Minister Sharad Pawar has said that India is capable of producing nuclear weapons. Preparations are also being made for the second test of the Agni I technology demonstrator.
—"India," Milavnews (Romford, Essex), September 1991, p. 15.
9 August 1991
According to the Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) Director Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, 34 institutions and research and development organizations are participating in the design and development phase of India's guided missile program. In the post-development phase, the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) plans to transfer the technologies involved in the production of the missiles to 22 public sector undertakings, 10 ordnance factories, and 9 private sector industries.
—"Head's Remarks," Times of India (Mumbai), 10 August 1991; in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-91-015, 27 September 1991, p. 18.
1992
The Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) in Bangalore (Karnataka) is tasked with developing the Sagarika missile; the project is expected to be completed by 2000 and followed soon after by deployment.
—Rahul Roy-Chaudhury, "Equipping the Navy for War on Land," Times of India (New Delhi), 13 July 1998, <http://www.timesofindia.com>.
1992
The Prithvi is scheduled for deployment with the Indian Army by the end of 1992. Changes requested by the Army, manufacturing problems at Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) in Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in Bangalore (Karnataka), delay deployment until the end of 1993.
—Theresa Hitchens and Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Prepares for Missile Test Despite US Objections," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 23 May 1994, p. 38.
1992
According to the head of the Defense Research & Development Laboratory's (DRDL) solid-propulsion division, A. Subhananda Rao, the Agni's first-stage solid motor case is made of high-strength 15CDV6 steel and is fabricated by conventional rolling and welding techniques. The motor is made in "three segments...the propellant used is Ap-Al-PBAN composite propellant and later switched over to HTPB [hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene] ...the propellant is of star configuration with a loading density of 78%. It is case bonded with a liner system between propellant and insulation." The motor's nozzle is built from 15CDV6 steel; a carbon-phenolic thermal protection system is used for the convergent, high-density graphite is used for the throat, and carbon and silica-phenolic lining is used in the fore end and aft end of the divergent. The motor is one meter in diameter and ten meters in length. It has a "propellant mass of 8.6 tons and a mass fraction of 0.85." In addition, two types of "Ullage and Retro motors" have been developed for the Agni technology demonstrator. Both Ullage and Retro motors are made of HE-15 aluminum alloy and use a double-base propellant. The motors are lined inside with high silica glass-phenolic ablative liners. Rao claims that India now has the infrastructure for the development and production of solid-propellant motors, fabrication of motor casings and nozzles, fabrication and production of ablative liners. In addition, the Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) has achieved self-sufficiency in the design, production, inspection, qualification, static-testing, and flight-testing of propulsion systems. The raw materials required for "propellant, motors, nozzles, igniters, are all indigenously developed."
—A. Subhananda Rao, "Development of Solid Propulsion Systems for Guided Missiles," in H. S. Mukunda and A. V. Krishnamurty, eds., Recent Advances in Aerospace Sciences and Engineering (Bangalore: Interline Publishing, 1992), pp. 184-186.
February 1992
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam says that two more trial launches of the Agni I are planned in the near future. These will involve the testing of longer-range missiles with an improved control and guidance system, and a more advanced heat shield for the warhead. According to the Indian government, the Agni remains a "technology demonstrator" and there are no plans as yet for its series production.
—"Test flights of new version of Agni IRBM planned," Jane's International Defense Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), February 1992, p. 94.
13 February 1992
During sixth test flight of the Prithvi-1, the missile breaks up in mid-flight when subjected to "torsional stress" from a pre-programmed 15° twisting maneuver.
—Zhan Dexiong, "Another Big Step Forward in Indian Missile Development," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 6 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis, 7 May 1992, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>.
26 March 1992
Defense Minister Sharad Pawar informs parliament that the armed forces will start receiving Prithvi surface-to-surface missiles (SSMs) in 1993.
—"Parliament Briefed on Missile System Production," All India Radio (New Delhi), 26 March 1992, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-010, 8 April 1992, p. 1.
5 May 1992
India conducts seventh flight-test of a modified version of the Prithvi-1 from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa). This is the first test of the Prithvi from the ITR. Indian scientists test modifications in the propulsion and control systems aimed at raising the overall performance of the missile. The Prithvi is launched from a mobile launcher combined with a launch control center, harnessing the specially developed application software. The trial also establishes the utility of liquid-propulsion engine and inertial navigation hardware produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and other ordnance factories.
—"Successful Launch For Prithvi Missile," Jane's Defence Weekly (Coulsdon, Surrey), 23 May 1992, p. 880; "Trishul, Prithvi Missiles Ready For Use," Patriot (New Delhi), 3 August 1992, p. 5, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-036, 7 October 1992, pp. 18-19.
11 May 1992
India's Department of Space announces that the ASLV-D3 will be launched within a few weeks. This will be the third launch of the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) after two successive failures in 1987 and 1988. Indian scientists say that changes have been made in the new vehicle based on the flight data analysis of the earlier unsuccessful flights. These changes include modifications in the internal structural elements of the launch vehicle, auto-pilot, event-based ignition system for the first two core stages and strap-on solid motors to reduce dynamic pressure. In addition, the control margin has also been enhanced. The ASLV-D3 will carry a 106kg Stretch Rohini Satellite Series-C (SROSS-C). The ASLV-D3 uses navigational computers and a closed-loop control guidance system. Indian scientists hope that the launch will help validate certain advanced technologies needed for future launch vehicles.
—"Satellite launch vehicle to be launched in India," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 11 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 11 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; "Indian ASLV satellite vehicle ready for launch," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 17 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 17 May 1992, <http://web.lexis.nexis.com>; "India successfully launches satellite," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 20 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
12 May 1992
India conducts successful test of the third-stage motor for the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) at the Sriharikota test center. According to Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) sources, the motor was ignited under simulated high-altitude conditions.
—"Science and Technology; Satellite launch vehicle motor successfully tested," All India Radio (New Delhi), 13 May 1992; in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 27 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
20 May 1992
A successful launch of the ASLV-D3 from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) occurred at 06:00 local time. The 24m-long, 41.7-ton, four-stage rocket successfully places a 106kg satellite into orbit at an altitude of 450km above the earth. Orbit parameters are 410km apogee and 290km perigee. The chairman of India's space commission, Professor U.R. Rao, says the important thing about the launch was "proving the rocket and orbiting the satellite."
—"India successfully launches satellite," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 20 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; T.S.K. Lingam, "India launches rocket, puts satellite into orbit," UPI (Washington, DC), 20 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; Aviation Week & Space Technology (New York), vol. 136, no.21, 25 May 1992, p. 17, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 25 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
24 May 1992
India announces that it will test its Agni ballistic missile between 27-30 May 1992. The missile will be launched from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa).
—"China Previews Test," Xinhua (Beijing), 24 May 1992; in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-017, 3 June 1992, p. 7.
29 May 1992
India conducts second test of the Agni from the Interim Test Range (ITR). The test is unsuccessful; the missile begins to veer off course within two seconds after launch and breaks up due to vibration-induced stress. [Note: A post-test analysis reveals that the failure was caused by the extension in the missile's length from 19m to 21m and an increase in its weight from 14 tons to 16 tons. The increased length and weight changed the vehicle's vibration characteristics. However, Indian scientists and engineers failed to anticipate the impact of these changes on the sensors' calculations. When the missile lifted off, the sensors mounted on the inner skin of the missile picked up the vibrations on its structure and erroneously started making course corrections, which caused the missile to break up under stress. The Times of India reports that the problem was identified and resolved with the help of a Russian consultant in 1993. However Indian scientists T.K. Ghosal (Jadavpur University, West Bengal) and V.G. Sekaran (Agni's vehicle director) dispute this report. The latter claim that Indian scientists identified the problem by subjecting a full-scale model to vibration tests. For future tests, Indian scientists decide to remove the sensors from the missile's inner casing to its bulkhead to prevent the possibility of structural vibrations affecting the sensors' calculations.]
—Manoj Joshi, "Agni's Launch Raises questions," Times of India (Mumbai), 22 February 1994, p. 8, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-010, 5 May 1994, p. 22; Raj Chengappa, "Caught In The Crosshairs," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi, HarperCollins Publishers, 2000), pp. 373-374.
29 May 1992
US State Department spokesperson Richard Boucher regrets India decision to proceed with further tests of the Agni missile. Boucher says, "we believe that ballistic missile programs in areas where they are chronic regional tensions undermine rather than enhance regional security." Responding to Boucher's comments, Indian embassy spokesperson in Washington, DC, G. Jagannathan says, "[Agni] is not for military purposes at this stage...the whole object is to demonstrate missile technology...India does not think that it will trigger an escalation in regional tensions."
—Sid Balman Jr., "U.S. says Indian missile test threatens regional stability," UPI (Washington, DC), 29 May 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 29 May 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
June 1992
A proposal is reportedly made to induct a Prithvi battery into the Army's 60th Heavy Artillery Regiment.
—Greg J. Gerardi, "India's 333rd Prithvi Missile Group," Jane's Intelligence Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), volume 7, number 8, August 1995, p. 362.
June 1992
India sells one ton of ammonium perchlorate (AP) to the Indonesian space agency.
—Gopal Raj, "Developing Competence in Solid Propulsion," Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme (New Delhi: Viking by Penguin Books India, 2000), p. 99.
13 June 1992
Defense Minister Sharad Pawar tells Press Trust of India (PTI) that India will test an Agni missile with a higher payload within two months.
—"India to test ballistic missile again," AFP, 13 June 1992; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 13 June 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
July 1992
The United States and its G-7 allies present almost identical démarches to India's foreign ministry urging India to suspend the Agni program.
—"India to Ignore US Pressure and Test Agni Missile," UPI (Washington, DC), 16 December 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 16 December 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
18 August 1992
India conducts eighth flight-test of the Prithvi-1. This is the second test of the Prithvi from the Interim Test Range (ITR), and the first test from a mobile platform, an eight-wheeled transporter-erector laucher (TEL) developed and manufactured by BEML in Bangalore (Karnataka). The test is conducted to test the Prithvi's maneuvering abilities after Indian defense scientists incorporate design changes to correct problems noted during an earlier test. According to Sivathanu Pillai, a senior official in the Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL), India's ballistic missiles are not only aimed at providing the Indian military with weapon systems, but also to generate exports. Indian scientists plan to conduct 11 or 12 trial launches before the Prithvi is deployed in the field.
—Brahma Chellaney, "India Set to Produce Nuclear-Capable Missile," Executive News Service, 18 August 1992; "Details Released on Prithvi Launchings," Times of India (Mumbai), 19 August 1992, pp. 1,14, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-036, 7 October 1992, pp. 17-18.
18 August 1992
Israel offers to sell pilotless aircraft technology to India.
—Brahma Chellaney, "India Set to Produce Nuclear-Capable Missile," UPI, 18 August 1992, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 18 August 1992, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
29 August 1992
India conducts ninth test of the Prithvi-I. The missile is successfully launched from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa) at 10:43 a.m.; this is the third test from the ITR.
—"Ninth Launching on 29 Aug.," Times of India (Mumbai), 29 August 1992, p. 7, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-036, 7 October 1992, p. 18.
4 October 1992
The Palghat-based public sector company, [Electronic] Instrumentation [India] Limited (Kerela), announces that it "has developed prototypes of eight items for supply to defense organizations." These are manufactured as part of the company's diversification plans and include a slow relay valve for the Agni, Trishul, and Akash missiles.
—"Firm Produces Items for CIS, Gulf, Missiles, Subs," All India Radio (New Delhi), 4 October 1992; in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-037, 9 October 1992, p. 10.
7 October 1992
Indian Express reports that the 250km-range Air Force-version of the Prithvi–Prithvi II (SS-250)—is undergoing technical trials; its induction with the Air Force is unlikely before 1995. With an expected range of 250km, the Air Force is likely to use the missile more for disruption than destruction of strategic targets. But much will depend on the accuracy and terminal effect of the missile system. The Air Force expects a circular error probability (CEP) of 20m; but the Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL), which is responsible for developing the missile, is unlikely to get a CEP less than 100m. For the required missile terminal effect, the Air Force has shown preference for cluster munitions, another indication that it is likely to use the missile in a disruption role. The Air Force has also initiated work on building an organization for the missile system. Unlike the Army, the Air Force and Navy are organized around specific weapon systems. Therefore, the creation of additional infrastructure will require the government's sanction. The Air Force is also debating whether to accept the Prithvi missiles in a pre-packed fueled state or without the propellant. According to the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO), the shelf-life of pre-packed propellant is five years as against 25 years for propellant stored in separate containers.
—Pravin Sawhney, "Future Deployment of Prithvi SS-250 Viewed," Indian Express (New Delhi), 7 October 1992, pp. 1, 10, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-92-039, 28 October 1992, p. 9.
1993
According to Defense News, the three Prithvi tests in 1993 were conducted to test the minimum and maximum ranges of the missile. The Indian Army has placed an order for 15 missiles and has plans to purchase an additional 65 missiles.
—Theresa Hitchens and Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Prepares for Missile Test Despite US Objections," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 23 May 1994, p. 38.
1993
The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) purchases a supercomputer to help in the design of aircraft and missiles from the Hyderabad-based Advanced Numerical Research & Analysis Group (ANURAG).
—Saritha Rai, "Computers: Super Breakthrough But...," India Today (New Delhi), 1-15 May 1993, p. 45.
26 January 1993
Indian scientist Manoranjan Rao of the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in Thiruvanathapuram (Kerela) announces that his organization has successfully tested an air-breathing rocket, ABR-200. The test was conducted by firing two sounding rockets from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh). During the test, the rockets reached a maximum speed of Mach 2.3. According to Rao and his colleague Rajaram Nagappa, the ABR-200 is based on the principle of the ejector ram jet. Rao says that additional development is needed in "that frontier technology" (air-breathing propulsion technology) which has been cited by the Pentagon as one of the 20 "critical" technologies relating to long-term US interests. [Note: An air-breathing rocket can carry a much larger payload by using oxygen from the atmosphere to achieve targeted thrust power. Conventional rockets are bulky because they need to carry their own oxidizer stock to burn propellants, thus limiting payload capacity.
—Brahma Chellaney, "India Reports Breakthrough in Rocket Technology," UPI (Washington, DC), 26 January 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 26 January 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
7 February 1993
India conducts tenth test-light of the Prithvi from a mobile launcher at 0820 GMT. This is the fourth test of the missile from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa).
—"Medium-Range Surface-to-Surface Missile Tested," All India Radio (New Delhi), 7 February 1993, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-005, 12 February 1993, p. 11; "Latest trials for Prithvi," Jane's Defence Weekly (Coulsdon, Surrey), 13 February 1993, p. 5.
9 February 1993
The Indian defense ministry proposes spending 2 billion rupees to establish production facilities for the Prithvi at Hyderabad. When produced for operational use, the Prithvi is expected to cost 18 million rupees per unit.
—Gian Singh, "MTCR 'Imposition' Decried," All India Radio (New Delhi), 9 February 1993, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-006, 5 March 1993, pp. 12-13.
1 March 1993
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) Chairman R. N. Sharma says that the Lakshya pilotless target aircraft (PTA) will enter service soon. The PTA's PTAE-7 350kg-thrust turbojet engine, which has been developed by Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), is being developed for higher thrust as well as for some long-life applications such as auxiliary power. According to Sharma, "type approval" of the PTAE-7 is imminent.
—Hormuz P. Mama, "HAL Arising; Hindustan Aeronautics projects await go-ahead," Jane's International Defense Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), Vol. 26, No. 3, 1 March 1993, p. 252, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 1 March 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
March 1993
Prime Minister Narasimha Rao secretly authorizes the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to begin work on the design of a new solid-fueledotor to replace the Agni's liquid-fuel second-stage.
—Raj Chengappa, "Tell Your President, I Keep My Word," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India Pvt. Ltd., 2000), p. 387.
15 March 1993
Defense Minister Sharad Pawar informs parliament that the Prithvi surface-to-surface missile (SSM) will be inducted in the armed services in 1993-1994.
—"'Prithvi,' 'Trishul' To Be Inducted This Year," India News, 15 March 1993.
2 April 1993
The scientific advisor to the defense minister, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, informs the parliament's consultative committee on defense that the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) will soon begin limited series production of a pilotless target aircraft (PTA). Referring to India's integrated missile program, Kalam says that India has achieved technological breakthroughs in several areas that have come under restrictive international controls such as computers, signal processing, metallurgy, and composite materials.
—"Daily Reviews Missile Program Progress, Spinoffs," Patriot (New Delhi), 2 April 1993, p. 6, in FBIS Document FBIS-NES-93-070, 14 April 1993, pp. 46-47.
22 May 1993
The Hindustan Times reports that the Prithvi has been inducted into the Army's 11th Corps and deployed along the Pakistani border. According to the report, "the missiles have been kept at a forward ammunition depot in Punjab, from where key Pakistani towns and military installations along the Punjab border will be within the reach of the missile system."
—"India said to deploy new ballistic missile along Pakistani border," UPI (Washington, DC), 22 May 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 22 May 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
12 June 1993
India conducts 11th flight-test of the Prithvi-I. The missile is tested in its battlefield configuration in conjunction with all its ground-control systems. An Indian defense ministry spokesperson says, "the launch was from the production batch and used a mobile launcher and the mobile control center." Prithvi enters user trials phase with the Indian Army.
—"Prithvi Getting Ready for User Trial Phase; Trishul Guidance Validated," Astra (Hyderabad), July 1993, p. 12; "Defence Ministry tests Prithvi missile 'successfully'," All India Radio (New Delhi), 12 June 1993, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 15 June 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; Brahma Chellaney, "India carries out surprise test of an extended Prithvi missile," UPI (Washington, DC), 12 June 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 12 June 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
3 August 1993
In an address to Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) graduates, the chief scientific advisor to the defense minister, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, broaches the subject of India's missile and satellite launch vehicle programs and says, "technology has to be the vision for India. Only that will bring us out of the developing country syndrome."
—"New rocket will launch satellite; defence advisor," AFP, 3 August 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 3 August 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
August 1993
The scientific advisor to the defense minister, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, says that that the Prithvi has entered the final phase of flight trials.
—"Rocket Developed to Carry Largest Payload," Deccan Chronicle (Hyderabad), 5 August 1993, p. 9, in FBIS
Document JPRS-TND-93-031, 8 October 1993, p. 12.
1 September 1993
The maiden flight of India's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is expected between 5 and 12 September 1993. The 44m-long, 280-ton PSLV has "one core, and six strap-on solid-propellant motors; the Vikas liquid-propellant second-stage; a solid-propellant third-stage; and a liquid-propellant fourth-stage motor. It can be used to place a 1,000kg payload into a 900km sun-synchronous orbit or a 3,000kg payload into an equatorial low-Earth orbit." The maiden launch will be used to place India's fourth remote-sensing satellite—IRS-1E 0—into sun-synchronous orbit.
—"PSLV scheduled for first lift-off," Flight International (Sutton, Surrey), 1 September 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 1 September 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
20 September 1993
First developmental launch of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with the 875kg IRS-1E payload on board occurred at 0513GMT from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh). A malfunction in the rocket's fourth stage prevents the satellite from being orbited successfully. Despite the mission's failure, the Indian space commission's chairman, Professor U.R. Rao, describes it as a "mixed bag of success.... The motors worked, the inertial navigation system worked, and the sequencing worked." According to Rao, "disturbances cropped up at the beginning of the third rocket stage and continued into the fourth and final stage. We are still studying what happened."
—Brahma Chellaney, "India's space program suffers serious setback," UPI (Washington, D.C.), 20 September 1993, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 September 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
22 September 1993
Indian space officials trace the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle's (PSLV) failure to an unexpected disturbance during the rocket's second-stage separation. The disturbance changed the "pitch attitude of the rocket, resulting in the third stage not providing upward velocity despite excellent performance of the third-state motor." An Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) report says, "the altitude reached at third-stage separation was only 340km as against a predicted 414km. Although the fourth-stage ignition occurred and it performed normally, but the pitch disturbance in the third-stage prevented the rocket from climbing further." However, despite the mission failure, all the rocket's motors and control systems functioned normally and it successfully maneuvered through the most critical stage of the powered flight in the atmosphere.
—"ISRO releases report on PSLV mission," Xinhua General Overseas News Service (Beijing), 22 September 1993; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 22 September 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
October 1993
India begins integrating the Prithvi-I into an artillery regiment in the Army.
—"Capabilities, Advantage of Prithvi Missile Noted," Hindu (Chennai), 27 January 1994, p. 6; in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-006, 16 March 1994, p. 20.
30 November 1993
India conducts 12th test of the Prithvi-I ballistic missile. The missile is launched from a mobile launcher at 0655 GMT. This is the fifth launch from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa). The missile is launched with a 250kg payload and lands within three minutes on the island of Tentuli Chada in the Bay of Bengal. Kalam says that this is the last technology demonstration flight of the Prithvi. Four villages around the test-site are evacuated prior to the test as a safety precaution.
—All India Radio Network (New Delhi), 30 November 1993, in "Surface-to-Surface Medium Range Missile Launched 30 Nov.," FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-001, 6 January 1994, p. 13; "Scientist Says Prithvi Flight 'Tremendous Success'," Times of India (Mumbai), 6 December 1993, p. 8, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-005, 25 February 1994, p. 13; "Details on 30 November Prithvi Launching Given," Times of India (Mumbai), 1 December 1993, p. 17, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-003, 31 January 1994, p. 12.
16 December 1993
The Indian government announces that it will test the Agni I ballistic missile from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa) between 4-14 January 1994. The union government requests the Orissa state government to evacuate nearly 9,000 people living in the 15 villages close to the test-site. The United States calls the Agni a "destabilizing weapon" and mounts intense diplomatic pressure on India to suspend further Agni tests.
—"India to ignore US pressure and test Agni missile," UPI (Washington, DC), 16 December 1993.
17 December 1993
India's Chief of Air Staff, Air Marshall S. K. Kaul tells reporters at Avia India 93–an international air show at the Air Force's Yelahanka base in Bangalore (Karnataka)–that the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) has embarked on a project to develop an anti-missile system in the wake of Pakistan's acquisition of ballistic missiles. However, the anti-missile program will depend on the availability of finances. Referring to the government's budgetary cuts, Kaul says, "we will have to do some juggling with the available resources." However, Indian defense scientists claim that the government has made no firm decision on the project. The final decision will be made by the union cabinet, which will study the financial implications and political fallout, before approving the project.
—"Air Chief Says Country Developing Antimissile System," Indian Express (New Delhi), 17 December 1993, p. 6, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-003, 31 January 1994, pp. 11-12; "Development of Antiballistic Missile System Studied," Sunday Times of India (Mumbai), 26 December 1993, p. 7, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-005, 25 February 1994, p. 13.
1994
India's investment in the Agni project reaches 300 million rupees.
—Laxmi Shankar Yadav, Dainik Jagran (New Delhi), 19 June 1994, in "Importance of Missile Program Stressed," FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-014, 13 July 1994, pp. 34-37.
1994
Media reports allege that India is developing a 12,000km-range intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) named Surya. There are conflicting reports about the configuration of the missile. Some reports suggest that the Surya will be a single-stage, liquid-fueled missile based on cryogenic technology. According to other reports, however, the Surya will be a four-stage system. The first two stages will comprise solid-fuel boosters derived from the Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) SLV-3; the third and fourth stages will consist of modified Prithvi missiles.
—Missile Systems of the World, AMI International (Bremerton, Washington), 1999, p. 455; "Development of Indian ICBM to be Closely Watched," Asian Defense Journal (Kuala Lumpur), July 1994, p. 94; "Commentary Says India to Test New ICBM," Radio Pakistan Network (Islamabad), 31 May 1994, in FBIS document FBIS-NES-94-107, 3 June 1994, p. 60.
7 January 1994
India aborts a planned test of the Agni because of technical problems. The pyro mechanism, which ignites the missile, fails as the cable supplying power to the missile becomes unplugged during the process of raising the missile from a horizontal to a vertical position for launch. During a routine pre-launch inspection, scientists also discover that strontium perchlorate, the fluid used for thrust vectoring or controlling the missile's direction during flight, has leaked out prematurely. The first-stage solid-fueled motor is dismantled and sent to Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in Thiruvanathapuram (Kerela) for repairs.
—"Technical Snag Postpones Agni Missile Test," All India Radio Network (New Delhi), 7 January 1994, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-93-003, 31 January 1994, p. 12; Raj Chengappa, "Tell Your President, I Keep My Word," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India Pvt. Ltd., 2000), pp. 384-387.
26 January 1994
India displays the Prithvi ballistic missile publicly for the first time during the Republic Day parade.
—John-Thor Dahlburg, "India Displays Tactical Missile in Parade," Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles), 27 January 1994, p. A8.
February 1994
Indian officials indicate that most of the components and equipment for the Prithvi surface-to-surface missile (SSM) and Akash surface-to-air missile (SAM) will be produced at various divisions of the Bangalore-based Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), ordnance factories, as well as some private-sector engineering companies. Final assembly of the complete missile system will take place at the Hyderabad-based Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL; Andhra Pradesh).
—Hormuz Mama, "India's no lumbering elephant when it comes to aerospace," Business Times (Singapore), 16 February 1994, p. 12, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 16 February 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; Hormuz P. Mama, "HAL Arising; Hindustan Aeronautics projects await go-ahead," Jane's International Defense Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), Vol. 26, No. 3, 1 March 1993, p. 252, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 1 March 1993, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
16 February 1994
Indian defense sources indicate that the next test of the Agni I will take place on 19 February. The local administration is preparing to evacuate approximately 11,000 people from the 15 villages within the 3.5km-radius of the missile launching pad.
—"Third Launch of the Agni set for 19th February," Press Trust of India (New Delhi), 16 February 1994, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 17 February 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
19 February 1994
India conducts third test of the Agni I. The missile is launched from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa) at 5:45 p.m. and impacts at a designated target off the Car Nicobar islands within 22 minutes at a distance of 1,400km. The 21-meter, 19-ton missile uses a solid propellant in the first stage and a liquid propellant in the second stage. A brief issued by the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) says that the third test validated the innovative design features aimed at testing the missile's longer-range and advanced maneuverability during the re-entry phase. Scientists tested a new re-entry vehicle with fins, which allows it to maneuver for greater accuracy. The test also validated a more advanced stage separation process. An Indian defense ministry press release says that the Agni payload performed to the design specifications with great accuracy.
—"Report Says Agni Missile Test Met All Objectives," Doordarshan Television Network (New Delhi), 20 February 1994, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-006, 16 March 1994, p. 19; Manoj Joshi, "Agni's Launch Raises Questions," Times of India (Mumbai), 22 February 1994, p. 8, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-010, 5 May 1994, p. 22; "Third Agni test launch fulfils 'set objectives'," Jane's Defence Weekly (Coulsdon, Surrey), 5 March 1994, p. 18; Rahul Bedi, "Countdown starts for India's ballistic missile," Jane's Defence Weekly (Coulsdon, Surrey), 11 September 1996, p. 21.
March 1994
The scientific advisor to the defense minister, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, discloses significant details about the Agni ballistic missile program in an interview with India Today. According to Kalam, when the Indian government visualized the Agni program (in the early 1980s), it was meant to be a technology demonstrator. However, now that it is a proven system, India has the option to make it operational within two years. The Agni program has demonstrated that India is capable of building long-range ballistic missiles with a range between 1,000-2,500km or more if necessary. India has mastered re-entry technology, including "maneuvering the missile path." Kalam points out that "Agni can carry any type of warhead...we now have a carrier on which both conventional and non-conventional weapons can be delivered over a long range." He emphasizes that the Agni has been developed indigenously and not with covert assistance from friendly foreign countries. When the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) began developing the Agni, it identified three critical technologies: re-entry, guidance, and propulsion systems. India developed the re-entry technology entirely on its own. Although India did purchase some sensors for the Agni's guidance system from Europe, the missile's propulsion system is "100% Indian." According to Kalam, each launch of the Agni costs less than 100 million rupees; because the Agni is a proven system, India can avoid doing a series of tests, and opt for batch tests instead.
—Raj Chengappa, "The Missile Man," India Today (New Delhi), 15 April 1994, pp. 42-43.
Early March 1994
The Defense Research & Development Organization's (DRDO) missile team, led by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Agni Program Director R. N. Agarwal, and Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) Director S. Pillai, present plans to develop an augmented (greater than 2,000km), all-solid-fuel version of the Agni missile to Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. They also discuss plans to build a rail-based transport system for the missile. Rao assures the missile team that the government will sanction funds for the projects.
—Raj Chengappa, "Tell Your President, I Keep My Word," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India Pvt. Ltd., 2000), p. 387.
March 1994
Commenting on the Army's decision to acquire 75 Prithvi ballistic missiles, India's Chief of Army Staff, General B.C. Joshi says that "Prithvi... is an extremely lethal weapon...it has a heavier warhead, increased range, and is highly mobile...in the battlefield a force multiplier has been introduced...and because it is indigenously produced...we are not beholden to any foreign power...to get more bang for the buck, we have to decide what numbers we would actually have to deploy. But the overall pay-offs are in terms of maintaining our independence, gaining confidence in critical technologies and the spin-off benefits that come from it. There is also a realization...that off-the-shelf purchases are no longer affordable as prices have gone sky high."
—Raj Chengappa, "The Missile Man," India Today (New Delhi), 15 April 1994, p. 40.
March 1994
India's Chief of Air Staff, Air Marshal S.K. Kaul, says that the Air Force has decided to acquire 25 Prithvi missiles. The Air Force has asked "for a version that can travel with lesser weight over longer distance...the actual number [of missiles] will depend on budgetary allocations. Costs are certainly important, and we have to lay down our priorities."
—Raj Chengappa, "The Missile Man," India Today (New Delhi), 15 April 1994, p. 41.
12 March 1994
The Chennai-based Hindu reports that the Agni program has received consideration in some detail at the "highest political level." After reviewing the program, the government has decided not to induct the Agni into the armed forces, but wants efforts concentrated on refining the guidance and propulsion systems of the missile. If the missile's circular error probable (CEP) is minimized, the Agni could be deployed with conventional warheads. The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) also has plans to convert the Agni's current solid-liquid configuration to a solely solid-solid design for greater efficiency.
—"Agni not to be inducted for now," Hindu (Chennai), 12 March 1994, p. 12.
25 March 1994
US Assistant Secretary of State for South Asia, Robin Raphael, visits New Delhi. She proposes a regional nuclear arms freeze in South Asia. Indian officials reject the US proposal, saying that India is opposed to regional arrangements and prefers the negotiation of a global agreement on the elimination of nuclear weapons.
—John F. Burns, "India Rebuffs US Effort to Slow Nuclear Arms Race With Pakistan," New York Times, 26 March 1994, p. 1.
6 April 1994
The US Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott arrives in New Delhi. He urges India not to deploy the Prithvi and Agni missiles and participate in a regional conference on denuclearization with the United States, Russia, China, and some other countries.
—"US seeks peace on subcontinent," Washington Times, 16 April 1994, p. A8.
9 April 1994
Indian Minister of State for Defense M. Malikarjun tells reporters that India will not slow or halt its missile program under pressure from any country. He says that the Prithvi has been successfully tested and the technical experts will decide the schedule of its induction into the armed forces.
—"Minister Says Government Not to Slow Down Missile Program," All India Radio (New Delhi), 9 April 1994, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-010, 5 May 1994, p. 21.
12 April 1994
The Indian Air Force invites global tenders in specialized national and international aviation journals for the sale of sensitive missile equipment which includes, Russian surface-to-surface missile (SAM-II) guidance systems, 126 serviceable missiles, 35 SAM-II launchers, and missile liquid propellants—92 liters of "O" fuel (Nitric Acid), 53,124 liters of "G" fuel and 20,785 liters of "IPN." An Indian Air Force officer expresses concern that the sale could be a violation of India's policy of not exporting missile technology and materials, "...adding to proliferation of such dangerous and sensitive equipment."
—Dinesh Kumar, "Advertisement Smacks of Scam," Times of India (Mumbai), 12 April 1994, pp. 1, 9, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-012, 7 June 1994, p. 22.
20 April 1994
The New Delhi-based Hindustan Times reports that further trials of the Agni have been postponed indefinitely due to US pressure. The government has not responded to a Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) funding request of 500 million rupees to conduct three more test launches in the future.
—"Paper Reports Temporary Halt to Agni Missile Program," AFP, 20 April 1994, in FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-010, 5 May 1994, p. 23.
21 April 1994
An Indian government spokesperson describes the Hindustan Times report "unfounded and baseless." A written statement issued by the Indian government asserts, "after the recent successful flight of the Agni, all the objectives set for this mission have been achieved." Without denying that the government has denied a Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) request for funds to conduct additional Agni test launches, the note says, "fund requirements of different departments are decided in relation to progress of various projects. Individual scheme-wise allocation is not undertaken at the government level."
—"Spokesman Clarifies Report on Capping Missile Plan," Hindustan Times (New Delhi), 21 April 1994, p. 22, in FBIS Document FBIS-NES-94-085, 3 May 1994, p. 69.
1 May 1994
Countdown begins for the fourth developmental launch of India's ASLV-D4 at the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh).
—"Countdown for satellite launch," UPI (Washington, DC), 1 May 1994, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 1 May 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
3 May 1994
Prime Minister Narasimha Rao assures parliament that his government will not cap the Agni program. Replying to a debate on the working of the defense ministry in parliament, Rao says that the Agni is an experiment and not a missile program, and that it is absurd to suggest that a program of national importance will be stopped for the want of 500 million rupees. Rao explains that data from the recent test is being analyzed and it will be about a year before the study is completed.
—"Rao Comments on 'Capping'," All India Radio (New Delhi), 3 May 1994, in FBIS Document FBIS-NES-94-085, p. 69.
4 May 1994
Successful launch of the ASLV-D4 from the Sriharikota launch center (Andhra Pradesh) occurred. The 41-ton, 23-meter-high ASLV-D4 successfully places a 113kg satellite, the SROSS-C2, in low-earth orbit. Orbital parameters are 938km apogee and 437km perigee. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Chairman Dr. Kasturirangan calls the program a "grand success."
—Neelam Jain, "India successfully launches satellite," UPI (Washington, DC), 4 May 1994; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 4 May 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; "India's indigenous satellite successfully launched," All India Radio (New Delhi), 4 May 1994; in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; "Recently launched satellite 'functioning normally'," All India Radio (New Delhi), 5 May 1994; in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 18 May 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
14 May 1994
The prime minister's office (PMO) orders the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) to postpone a Prithvi test until the prime minister returns from his state-visit to the United States. However, Prime Minister Rao clarifies before parliament that the temporary postponement will not result in any delay in the Prithvi's original trial program and that there is no pressure on him to stop the missile development program. Minister of State for Defense, M. Malikarjun also confirms before parliament that the missile test has been postponed because "major missile launchings are conducted when the prime minister is in the country." He further explains that the test has been postponed to avoid embarrassment, "in case of a particular result when the prime minister was away in another country...there is no intention of stopping the trials. Since the final-phase trials are planned for April-July 1994, the dates of the sub-phases will be suitably adjusted so that there will not be any delay in the completion of the trials."
—"Prithvi trials on schedule: PM," Hindu International Edition (Chennai), 21 May 1994, p. 4.
May 1994
The Army decides to delay deployment of the Prithvi because of production problems among the three agencies involved in the design, manufacture, and integration of the missile system. Bharat Dynamics Limited, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) was supposed to have supplied 260 missiles by 1993; but this target was postponed as more tests became necessary. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in Bangalore(Karnataka), which builds the liquid-fuel engines for the missile, was also forced to delay the project once Army officials demanded additional modifications in the missile.
—Theresa Hitchens and Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Prepares for Missile Test Despite U.S. Objections," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 23-29 May 1994, p. 38.
May 1994
Prime Minister Narasimha Rao states on 12 May 1994 that India will continue with Prithvi tests despite US pressure to halt the program. The 13th test-flight of the Prithvi is scheduled for 23 May 1994, only three days after Rao returns from a trip to the United States.
—Theresa Hitchens and Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Prepares for Missile Test Despite U.S. Objections," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 23-29 May 1994, p. 38.
31 May 1994
Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) officials indicate that the Prithvi will be tested between 4-6 June. The local district administration issues a notification requiring the evacuation of 87 families from five villages located within a one-kilometer radius of the Interim Test Range (ITR). The villagers will be notified to evacuate their homes 48 hours prior to the test-launch.
—"Prithvi missile test launch imminent; villagers evacuated from launch pad area," Press Trust of India (New Delhi), 31 May 1994, in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 2 June 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
May 1994
The 13th test of the Prithvi I is cancelled when a faulty nozzle on the Prithvi's liquid-propellant loading system allows propellant to leak into the engine casings.
—Theresa Hitchens and Vivek Raghuvanshi, "Fuel Nozzle Grounds Prithvi," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 6 June 1994, p. 20.
4 June 1994
A Prithvi I is tested from a mobile launcher. This marks the 13th test of the Prithvi and is part of the Indian Army's pre-induction trial phase with its first user-trial. This is also the first time that a Prithvi is armed with a live warhead during a test. The missile is fired at a target on Wheeler's Island, 85km from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa). The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) and the Army are likely to conduct six more tests under battlefield conditions and user trials are expected to be completed by the end of July 1994.
—Navbharat Times (Bombay), 7 June 1994, p. 9, in "Editorial Views Advent of Missiles," FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-017, 13 July 1994, p. 32; "India to Deploy Prithvi TBM," Jane's International Defence Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), September 1994, p. 14; "Prithvi Missile Said 'Far Superior' to Patriot, Scud," All India Radio (New Delhi), 7 June 1994, in FBIS Document FBIS-NES-94-109, 7 June 1994, p. 72.
6 June 1994
The 14th test of the Prithvi missile occurs. The missile hits the designated target located 145km from the Interim Test Range (ITR) in Chandipur (Orissa). The test is an Army user-trial conducted by artillery officers who will be assigned to the Army's missile force. This is expected to be the final test before the Army places orders for the Prithvi. According to Army officials, all user trials should be completed by the end of July 1994.
—Navbharat Times (Bombay), 7 June 1994, p. 9, in "Editorial Views Advent of Missiles," FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-017, 13 July 1994, p. 32; Laxmi Shankar Yadav, Dainik Jagran (Delhi), 19 June 1994, p. 6, in "Importance of Missile Program Stressed," FBIS Document JPRS-TND-94-014, 13 July 1994, pp. 34-37.
June 1994
During user-trials, the Army finds the changing of the Prithvi's warheads in the field difficult. It requests the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) to introduce design modifications before placing orders for the missile.
—Greg J. Gerardi, "India's 333rd Prithvi Missile Group," Jane's Intelligence Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), Vol. 7 No. 8, August 1995, p. 361.
June 1994
It is estimated that India has six Prithvi missiles at this time; the Indian Army plans to order 75 while the Indian Air Force may order 25, although the latter has yet to conduct user trials. The Army begins raising an independent missile unit, the 333rd Missile Group, to be based in Secunderabad (Andhra Pradesh). This unit will facilitate command, control, logistics, and the intelligence support necessary for making the missiles operational. [Note: Secunderabad is the twin sister city of Hyderabad.]
—Sunil Dasgupta, "A Quiet Launch," India Today (New Delhi), 30 June 1994; Raj Chengappa, "Boosting the Arsenal," India Today (New Delhi), 29 February 1996, pp. 98-99.
17 June 1994
Indian officials dismiss US concerns that India is building ballistic missiles to deliver nuclear warheads. They claim that the Indian Air Force's Jaguar and Mirage 2000 attack aircraft—not missiles—and it would be the obvious choice for nuclear delivery vehicles.
—Paul Mann, "Washington Outlook," Aviation Week & Space Technology (New York), 13 June 1994, p. 21.
27 July 1994
Flight International reports that the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) in Bangalore (Karnataka) is developing a 300km-range ramjet-powered submarine-launched missiles known as Sagarika. Design and development of the Sagarika began in 1992. The Sagarika is modeled on the Prithvi ballistic missile, but it will be much smaller in size because the ramjet engine eliminates the need to carry an oxidizer along with fuel. The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) is testing scale models of the Sagarika at the testing establishment in Bangalore. One design is already being tested in a wind tunnel. According to ADE officials, a budget of $33.3 million has been allocated to develop the Sagarika. Officials say that costs are low because DRDO already has experience in the design of missiles, propulsion, and materials. Only the submarine launch technology will have to be developed separately. Other organizations involved in the research and design of the missile include the Indian Institute of Sciences (IISc) in Bangalore (Karnataka) and the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) in New Delhi. Speculation persists that ADE is also seeking help in the development of the ramjet engine technology from some Russian missile and ramjet design bureaus.
—"India tests missile," Flight International, (Sutton, Surrey), 27 July-2 August 1994, p. 6; Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Models SLBM After Prithvi Missile," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 25-31 July 1994, p. 15.
July 1994
Indian magazine Probe India reports that Indian scientists have begun work on developing an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). The ICBM, named Surya, will be an upgraded version of the Agni, which was last tested in February 1994. Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) scientists hope to finalize the design by 1995 and the missile is likely to be tested in 1996. The Surya is rumored to be about 35-40m in length and weighing approximately 40 tons. It will either comprise of a single-stage engine based on cryogenic technology or alternatively comprised of four stages, with two SLV-3s in the first two stages and two modified Prithvi missiles in the third and fourth stages.
—"Development of Indian ICBM To Be Closely Watched," Asian Defence Journal (Kuala Lumpur), July 1994, p. 94.
August 1994
Former Indian Vice Chief of Army Staff General Harwant Singh says that the Prithvi-I, which costs between 30-50 million rupees per unit, may not be cost effective unless armed with a nuclear warhead.
—Ali Abbas Rizvi, "Reports About Nuclear 'Prithvi' Increase Pak Worries," Asian Defence Journal (Kuala Lumpur), August 1994, p. 94.
August 1994
A special report on the Prithvi in the Times of India states that while "at a public level India is battling pressure to prevent the Prithvi's induction into the Indian Army, there are indications that the missile may be already available for launch from selected sites in the western borders." Since the Army "intends to integrate the Prithvi missile on a Tatra truck as a battlefield support weapon system into its corps artillery formations," special survey equipment mounted on trucks will be used to determine the point of launch. But in the interim, "...the [launch] sites have been pre-surveyed and their targets already determined." The report further claims that Prithvi will be used for accurate strikes on airfields, fuel and ammunition dumps, railway marshalling yards, and bridges.
—Ali Abbas Rizvi, "Reports About Nuclear 'Prithvi' Increase Pak Worries," Asian Defence Journal (Kuala Lumpur), August 1994, p. 94.
August-September 1994
Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter reports that the Indian government has decided to build eight or nine prototypes of the Agni IRBM to capitalize on the success of the program. In addition, the Air Force has established a station at ITR, Chandipur (Orissa) to "establish the crucial coordination between scientists, technicians, and the users."
—"India," Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter (Herndon, VA), August-September 1994, p. 21.
September 1994
Jane's International Defence Review reports that the Indian Army completed user-trials of its Prithvi tactical ballistic missile in late July 1994, enabling the weapon to enter production. Other reports suggest that India has begun producing three Prithvi missiles per month.
—"India to deploy Prithvi TBM," International Defence Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), September 1994, p. 14; "India," Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter (Herndon, VA), August-September 1994, p. 21.
12 September 1994
The scientific advisor to India's defense minister, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, says that India will conduct another test of the Agni I missile in October 1994 and then proceed with its missile program as planned.
—Vivek Raghuvanshi, "India Plans Test of Ballistic Missile," Defense News (Springfield, VA), 12 September 1994, p. 36.
20 September 1994
General Romesh Khosla of the Indian Army states, "we are in the final stages of the user trials and the missile system [Prithvi] should be ready for induction very soon. We are working on establishing a complete infrastructure before these missile are eventually inducted into the Army."
—Cited in Greg J. Gerardi, "India's 333rd Prithvi Missile Group," Jane's Intelligence Review (Coulsdon, Surrey), Vol. 7 No. 8, August 1995, p. 361.
21 September 1994
A four-nation team of representatives from the United States, Britain, Australia, and Switzerland visit New Delhi and begin a dialogue on the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). The delegation urges India to give up its nuclear and ballistic missile program.
—"MTCR Team Visits India/Pakistan," Flight International (Sutton, Surrey), 21 September 1994, p. 18.
12 October 1994
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Chairman Dr. Kasturirangan tells the press that India will not launch its first geostationary satellite launch vehicles (GSLV) before 1997. Russia will provide the cryogenic engine for the first vehicle by the end of 1996. Kasturirangan says that ISRO is augmenting its facilities at the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) to handle cryogenic engines. The first two-stages of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) will be used in the GSLV. Referring to the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) program he says that ISRO has no plans to go in for additional launches of the ASLV-series following the success of the fourth developmental flight in May 1994.
—"India's GSLV not to be launched before 1997," Xinhua News Agency (Beijing), 12 October 1994, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 12 October 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
15 October 1994
A successful developmental launch of the second polar satellite launch vehicle–PSLV-D2 from the Sriharikota High-Altitude Range (SHAR) occurred in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) at 0508 GMT. The 44-meter-tall, 283-ton rocket places an 870kg remote sensing satellite–IRS-P2–into a sun-synchronous orbit 825km above the earth. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Chairman K. Kasturirangan says, "what we have achieved today is the culmination of 12 years of work." [Note: According to ISRO sources, the first-stage PS-1 core consists of a 2.8m diameter, five-segment solid motor loaded with 129 metric tons of propellant generating about 1.01-million pounds of thrust at liftoff. The first-stage motor is 20m long. The core vehicle is equipped with six solid strap-on boosters that generated about 148,500-pounds of thrust. The core and two of the strap-on rockets were ignited at liftoff, while the other four strap-on boosters were ignited 30.5 seconds into the launch. Each strap-on fired for 74 seconds. First-stage burnout and ignition of the second stage occurred at 111 seconds into the mission. The second-stage liquid rocket engine has a thrust of about 161,000 pounds and burns 37 metric tons of nitrogen tetroxide and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine. It fired for 150 seconds before ignition of the third-stage solid rocket motor, 261 seconds into the flight. The third-stage solid rocket motor, with 7.2 metric tons of propellant, generated about 76,500 pounds of thrust and burned for 76 seconds. The third-stage cutoff occurred 380 seconds following liftoff at an altitude of 421km. The vehicle then coasted for 3.5 minutes before ignition of the small fourth-stage liquid-propulsion system that uses two engines generating about 3,300 pounds of thrust. They burned two metric tons of propellant during a 405-second firing sequence.]
—"India launches most powerful space rocket, deploys satellite," AFP, 15 October 1994, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 15 October 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>; Craig Covault, "India Launches New Booster, Aviation Week & Space Technology (New York), Vol. 141, No. 17, 24 October 1994, p. 24, in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 24 October 1994, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.
November 1994
The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) contracts Godrej & Boyce Manufacturing Company Limited, Bombay (Maharashtra), to manufacture critical sub-systems for the Agni and Prithvi ballistic missiles. These include oxidizer and fuel tanks for the Agni and Prithvi, and engine, nose cone assembly, and riveted aluminum structures for the Agni.
—"Further Agni Tests Likely to Be Carried Out Soon," Financial Express (New Delhi), 27 November 1994, p. 5.
1995
The Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) begins "systematic and exhaustive" work on developing "thermally stable" explosives for oil well shooting charges and space programs. The DRDO and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) also develop "flexible linear shaped charges having explosive loading of 1-100g/m" for military and civilian applications including "stage separation of space vehicles, cutting of outer cases of warheads, and canopy severance system..." One such composition "recently tested" gave a "clean cut of a 7mm-thick acrylic sheet without any adverse effect (shock, vibration) on other subsystems."
—Haridwar Singh, "High Energy Material Research and Development in India," Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 11, No. 4, July-August 1995, p. 853.
1995
According to Haridwar Singh of the Explosives Research & Development Laboratory (ERDL), Pune (Maharashtra), India has "achieved world standards" in the field of solid propellants (conventional and advanced). Research in the area of double base propellants (DBP) is centered around "formulation, processing, and evaluation of both extruded double base (EDB) and cast double base (CDB) propellants containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, stabilizer, plasticizer, and additives (coolant, ballistic modifiers) for different applications...a large number of EDB/CDB propellants in different dimensions (60-200mm) and configurations (tubular, slotted, tube, internal star) have been developed to meet various requirements. A considerable amount of work has been done on the catalysis and platonization of DBP to obtain pressure- and temperature-insensitive low- and high-calorimetric value compositions." In the area of composite propellants (CP), research in India has followed the requirements of "higher ballistic performance coupled with better mechanical integrity under extreme operating conditions." Between 1965-1995, the size of the "rocket propellant grain has grown...from 75mm diameter, weighing 4.5kg to...more than 128 tons. Correspondingly, the propellant grain technology has moved from free-standing to case-bonded propellant grains for improving the performance. Keeping pace with this growth, the polymeric binders used in propellants have undergone changes from the conventional polyvinyl chloride (PVC), to polybutadiene-acrylic acid-acrilonitrile (PBAN), to carboxyl-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB), and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). Both the Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) are working on HTPB-based propellant systems for different applications."
ISRO has developed three more new polymeric binders, in addition to the above binders, for use in solid composite propellants: HEF-20, which is used as a "substitute for CTPB," ISRO Polyol-based propellants used in sounding rockets, and hyroxyl-terminated natural rubber (HTNR). HTNR "based propellants are...under development." DRDO has "developed a series of HTPB and polyoxy propylene glycol-based polyurethane compositions to meet wide and varied requirements of rockets/missiles. Most of the charges are cartridge-loaded and inhibited with either filled HTPB or filled flexible epoxy resin. Gas generator compositions having high burn rates at low pressures have also been developed using HTPB as binder, fine ammonium perchlorate (AP) as oxidizer, and butyl ferrocene derivatives as ballistic modifier. The broad spectrum...include burn rates of 2-40mm/s, Isp of 230-245s, density of 1.8g/cc, pressure exponent of 0.1-0.3, and tensile strength of 25kg/cm2...burn rate data of propellants based on AP/N-N bonded epoxy binder at various pressures show significant enhancement, some of the order of 400% over conventional AP/CTPB systems with the same amount of AP loading." Significant developments in composite modified double base propellant (CMDB) propellants includes research in "CMDB propellants containing both AP, aluminum, and nitramines...used for the boost phase of a surface-to-air missile, using the IRR (integrated rocket ramjet) propulsion system. One of the major contributions of Indian scientists in this area has been the development of crosslinked CMDB propellants of high mechanical properties (tensile and compressive strength) and high-energy (Isp 246s)." ERDL has also conducted research on "glycidyl azide polymer (GAP)-based propellants...as [GAP] offers a unique energetic binder and plasticizer system for advanced propellants to achieve higher performance, superior mechanical properties, and low vulnerability. Its chief advantages are higher density and positive heat of formation as compared to the widely used HTPB. Research work at ERDL has indicated that GAP acts as a high-energy desensitizer and is capable of enhancing the energy and burn rates."
DRDO has also researched "pressed- and cast-type of fuel-rich propellants (FRP) for IRR applications, based on Mg [magnesium] powder, and hydrocarbons...studies are being conducted at ERDL with Ti [titanium], Ni [nickel], Zr [Zirconium], Mg-Al powders with HTPB, and GAP-plasticized double base matrix." Overall, the current CP in use by DRDO and ISRO are "based on HTPB with AP as oxidizer...major efforts at present are in increasing the solid content from 86% to 90% by the use of a multimodal distribution of oxidizer, improving the mechanical properties of the propellant by the use of bonding agents, and increasing the burn rate without increasing the pressure exponent. Use of other metallic fuels (Ti, Zr, B) are being studied with a view to use these fuel-rich propellants in air breathing propulsion systems." Future research will most likely focus on "new energetic binders/plasticizers/additives/oxidizers in solid propellants,...hybrid propulsion systems, ....high energy solid fuels and liquid oxidizers,...and applications of N-N-bonded epoxides as hypergolic fuels for hybrid propulsion." In addition, the "new emphasis on performance will require the development of low-cost composite cases to reduce the weight of the motor."
—Haridwar Singh, "High Energy Material Research and Development in India," Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 11, No. 4, July-August 1995, pp. 848-851, 854.
[Note: Indian scientists have refuted some of these allegations. According to Madhavan Nair, who headed Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) electronic group in the 1970s and was part of the team which collaborated with the West German aerospace company, DFVLR, ISRO's involvement was limited to low-level experiments. One of the experiments involved a study of the effects of the ionosphere on the altitude of rockets. According to Nair, "it was a very limited experiment and to say that [it] helped us to develop our guidance systems or that of DRDL [Defense Research & Development Laboratory] is a very funny story." Similarly, S. C. Gupta, former director of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in Thiruvanathapuram (Kerela) and head of ISRO's guidance and control team, points out that organizational rivalry between DRDL and ISRO made cooperation between the two agencies during the 1970s impossible. Whereas DRDL switched to developing "strap-down" technology, ISRO stuck with the "platform-type" guidance system. It was only after Kalam took over as director of DRDL that ISRO began cooperating with DRDL in a very limited way. That cooperation involved independent reviews of DRDL's work. According to Gupta, "there was intellectual involvement by us. But to deduce too much from that would be absurd." Similarly, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam has dismissed allegations that an aerodynamic model of the Agni was tested in a DFVLR wind-tunnel or that DFVLR developed the Agni's guidance system, first-stage rocket, and composite nose cone. Referring to allegations that he picked up the basic design for the Agni during his four-month training stint at Wallop's Island in the United States in 1962, Kalam says, "the fact that I was in Wallop's 25 years ago, and at that time the technology used in the Agni did not exist even in the United States, was not mentioned."]
—"The Risk Report," Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, Vol. 1, No. 1, January/February 1995, pp. 3, 5, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>; Raj Chengappa, , "Caught in the Crosshairs," Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest to be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India Pvt. Ltd., 2000), pp. 376-378; A.P.J. Abdul Kalam with Arun Tiwari, "Propitiation," in Wings of Fire: An Autobiography (Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Limited, 1999), p. 153.
