This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here.

Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.

1932
Indian physicist Dr. Homi Bhabha wins the Rouse Ball Traveling Fellowship, which he uses to visit and work with physicists Wolfgang Pauli in Zurich and Enrico Fermi in Rome.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 5.

1934
Indian physicist Dr. Homi Bhabha receives an Isaac Newton Studentship which enables him to visit the institutes and laboratories of key European theoretical physicists. During the three-year period of his studentship, he works and studies at Cambridge and also at the Institute of Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen, Denmark with Niels Bohr and James Franck.
—Robert S. Anderson, "Building Scientific Institutions in India: Saha and Bhabha," Occasional Paper No. 11, Centre for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, Montreal, Canada, 1975, p. 14; Sir John Cockcroft, "Homi Jehangir Bhabha, 1909-1966," pt. 4, Proceedings of the Royal Institution 41, no. 191 (1967) in B.V. Sreekantan, Virendra Singh, and B.M. Udgaoankar, eds. Homi Jehangir Bhabha: Collected Scientific Papers (Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1985), p. 956.

1942
The British government creates the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to carry out the science related activities of the Indian government to support the war effort.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 144.

March 1944
Dr. Homi Bhabha writes a grant request to the Sir Dorab Tata Trust to seek funding for the creation of an Indian institute to conduct fundamental research in the nuclear field.
—Sir John Cockcroft, "Homi Jehangir Bhabha, 1909-1966," pt. 4, Proceedings of the Royal Institution 41, no. 191 (1967) in B.V. Sreekantan, Virendra Singh, and B.M. Udgaoankar, eds. Homi Jehangir Bhabha: Collected Scientific Papers (Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1985), p. 958.

1945
To increase his influence, the Dewan of the princely state of Travancore, C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, allows the minerals attaché of the US Embassy to survey the region's monazite sands in the hopes of attracting bids from US firms for concessions. These sands are sought by a number of countries, including the United States, because when processed, they yield a number of "rare earth compounds" including thorium. [Note: Prior to the Second World War, these sands had been extracted by the United States, Britain, France and Germany for use in the gas mantle and lamplight industry; however, after the start of the war, the India's War Trade Intelligence Department tightened control for fear that Germany would attempt to refine the sands for thorium. The Indian Atomic Energy Act of 1948 classifies thorium as a source material for atomic energy.]
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 57.

14 April 1945
The Tata Board of Trustees meets to formally consider Dr. H. Bhabha's proposal. The trustees agree to fund the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) with a budget of 80,000 rupees. The Tata Trust determines that responsibility for financing and managing the institute should be balanced between Bombay University and the local government.
—George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 16; G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 114; B.V. Sreekantan, Virendra Singh, and B.M. Udgaoankar, eds. Homi Jehangir Bhabha: Collected Scientific Papers (Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, 1985), p. LV.

1 June 1945
Dr. H. Bhabha becomes the first director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), which begins operations in Bangalore.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 114.

End of August 1945
The two nuclear bomb explosions in Japan confirm Ramaswamy Iyer's impression of the value of thorium to foreign interests. He informs US minerals attaché Corry of his intension to ban the export of monazite from Travancore, except that which is necessary for "war needs."
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 57.

December 1945
Dr. H. Bhabha moves the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) to Bombay. At this time, the institute is provided with 25,000 rupees from the government of Bombay, 10,000 rupees from the government of India, and 45,000 rupees from the Tata Trust.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 114.

26 June 1946
Leader of the Interim Government Cabinet, Jawaharlal Nehru, delivers a speech in Bombay in which he discusses atomic bombs. He says, "It [is] a very grave responsibility for any country [to use] atomic bombs. A very great responsibility rests with the United States. It justified the use of [the] atomic bomb on the ground that it stopped [the] war, but by unleashing such a weapon, it [has] created a dangerous situation. The atomic bomb brought a measure of hope also. Faced with such a destructive weapon, people might wake up . . . [As] long as the world [is] constituted as it [is], every country [will] have to devise and use the latest scientific devices for its protection. [I have] no doubt that India [will] develop her scientific researches and [I hope] Indian scientists [will] use the atomic force for constructive purposes. But if India [is] threatened, she [will] inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal. [I hope] India, in common with other countries, [will] prevent the use of atomic bombs."
—Dorothy Norman, ed., Nehru: The First 60 Years, vol. 2 (New York: John Day, 1965), p. 264.

1946
The Indian government forms the Atomic Energy Research Committee with Dr. H. Bhabha as its Chairman. This committee functions as part of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and focuses on promoting education in nuclear physics in Indian colleges and universities. Dr. H. Bhabha uses his position with this organization to consolidate his political position and advise Interim Government Cabinet leader Jawaharlal Nehru more closely on matters related to atomic energy.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), p. 145.

1946
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) provides the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) with 75,000 rupees.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 67.

1946
During the debate on the Baruch Plan in the United Nations, India resists the idea of international ownership of fissile ores such as uranium and thorium. The leader of the Indian delegation to the General Assembly, Ms. Vijaylakshmi Pandit, argues that such control would deprive India of an important economic asset in the future. In general, India supports the principle of ensuring that nuclear materials and capabilities will be used only for peaceful purposes, but resists any measures that would allow some states to retain nuclear weapons while denying others the full freedom to use their resources as they see fit. [Note: Under the Baruch Plan, proposed in mid-1946 by the United States, all nuclear resources would be internationally owned and managed. Under this plan, the United States would give up its nuclear weapons program only after all other states had placed their nuclear programs under international control.]
—Shyam Bhatia, India's Nuclear Bomb (Ghaziabad: Vikas, 1979), p. 43; Center for Nonproliferation Studies, "Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons: History," NPT Tutorial, <http://cnsdl.miis.edu/npt/npt_3/history.htm>.

May 1946
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) expresses its support for Iyer's ban on the export of its monazite sands. In a press release, the Board of Atomic Energy notes its appreciation for "the measures being taken in Travancore to preserve the nation's national resources."
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 58.

1946
Prime Minister Nehru writes a series of notes to the Cabinet and other state agencies to prevent the export of "atomic material," including the monazite sands.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 58.

1946
Prime Minister Nehru nominates Dr. H. Bhabha as the scientific adviser to the Indian government. In effect, this decision acknowledges Dr. H. Bhabha as the national expert on atomic energy.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 58.

April 1948
Dr. H. Bhabha writes a note entitled Organisation of Atomic Research in India to Prime Minister Nehru, in which he expresses his view that "the development of atomic energy should be entrusted to a very small and high powered body composed of say, three people with executive power, and answerable directly to the Prime Minister without any intervening link. For brevity, this body may be referred to as the Atomic Energy Commission." Dr. H. Bhabha also indicates his opinion that the existing Board of Research on Atomic Energy is not an appropriate body to manage such matters because it must report to the 28-member Governing Body of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), which would compromise its ability to maintain confidentiality. In addition, Dr. H. Bhabha recommends that the Board of Research on Atomic Energy be abolished when the AEC is formed. He then requests approximately 10 million rupees for the Commission to use over the next four years, permission from the Prime Minister to continue negotiations with Britain, France, and Norway under complete secrecy, and permission to prepare bilateral agreements with each country, which would be submitted to the Indian government upon completion.
—G. Venkataraman, Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions (Hyderabad: Universities Press India, 1994), pp. 145-146; Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 60.

April 1948
The Indian government assumes direct responsibility for the atomic energy sector. Prime Minister Nehru introduces the Atomic Energy Act before India's Constituent Assembly to create an Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and the legal framework for its operation. The act, modeled on Britain's Atomic Energy Act, calls for research and development of atomic energy in "complete secrecy." It establishes government ownership of all pertinent raw materials, particularly uranium and thorium. In the ensuing legislative debate over the level of secrecy, Nehru argues that secrecy is necessary to protect Indian materials and "know-how" from exploitation by the industrialized countries and to assure the United States and United Kingdom that if they cooperate with India in this field, their secrets would be protected. In response to parliamentarian S.V. Krishnamurthy Rao's criticism that "secrecy in the UK [United Kingdom] is restricted only for defense purposes," Nehru responds, "I do not know how you are to distinguish between the [defense and atomic energy purposes]." Nehru further states, "If we are to remain abreast in the world as a nation which keeps ahead of things, we must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war—indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes....Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way. But I do hope that our outlook in regard to this atomic energy is going to be a peaceful one for the development of human life and happiness and not one of war and hatred."
—Constituent Assembly of India (Legislative Debates), 2d sess., vol. 5, April 6, 1948, pp. 3315, 3328, 3333-34, cited in George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 18.

7 April 1948
The Board of Research on Atomic Energy of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) holds a meeting and passes resolutions to encourage the government to establish a nuclear reactor, to allocate 8 million rupees for research and capital equipment, and to establish heavy water capabilities.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 60.

May 1948
Prime Minister Nehru writes a note to his Cabinet to authorize the 10 million rupees requested by Dr. H. Bhabha in April. Nehru agrees with Dr. H. Bhabha's arguments and writes that "any consideration of this matter involves a discussion of highly technical processes, many of which are secret." He goes on to explain that atomic research will have a significant social and industrial value and that working in cooperation with other countries would be necessary. He suggests establishing a heavy water plant and, echoing the wishes of Dr. H. Bhabha, he recommends that the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) should be "a small, high-powered body" that reports directly to his office.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb, (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 60.

16 July 1948
India's Ministry of Defense (MOD) creates the Scientific Advisory Committee with Dr. H. Bhabha, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar, and Dr. K.S. Krishnan as its members. This Committee is later renamed the Defence Science Advisory Board.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 61.

15 August 1948
Pursuant to the Atomic Energy Act, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) is established. The Department of Scientific Research is responsible for both the Atomic Energy Research Committee and the AEC. The three-member AEC is composed of the same members as the Scientific Advisory Committee: Dr. H. Bhabha, Dr. K.S. Krishnan, and the director-general of CSIR, Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar. The AEC is placed under the "direct personal oversight" of the prime minister.
—Itty Abraham, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb (London: Zed Books, 1998), p. 61.

23 March 1949
Responding to questions about nuclear research posed in the Indian parliament, Prime Minister Nehru states "We are not thinking in terms of atomic bombs. We are thinking in terms of processing various minerals out of which atomic energy comes. Probably we shall be subjecting these minerals to this processing and use the energy for research work."
—Shyam Bhatia, India's Nuclear Bomb (Ghaziabad: Vikas, 1979), p. 89.

1949
The Indian permanent representative to the United Nations, Sir Benegal Rau, is appointed to chair an 11-member sub-committee tasked with designing a compromise proposal to restrict the spread of nuclear weapons. The plan devised by Sir Benegal's ad hoc committee proposes that the General Assembly call upon the International Law Commission to formulate a draft declaration on conduct in regard to nuclear energy development to promote peaceful uses and to eliminate nuclear weapons from national arsenals.
—Shyam Bhatia, India's Nuclear Bomb (Ghaziabad: Vikas, 1979), p. 45.

1949
Rare Earths Limited, a joint-venture company financed by the India's federal government and the government of the state of Travancore-Cochin, enters into contracts with two French firms, the Societe de Produits Chimique and the Banque Marocaine de Credit, for the construction of a facility at Alwaye, Travancore to extract thorium from the monazite sands that abound in that region. Dr. H. Bhabha receives a nomination to the company's board of directors.
—Shyam Bhatia, India's Nuclear Bomb (Ghaziabad: Vikas, 1979), p. 87.

	Updated October 2003