Salmonella typhi, the causative agent of typhoid fever, is a Gram-negative bacterium that has been studied for many years with regard to its potential use as a biological warfare (BW) agent. To date, there are a few known examples of its use as a weapon. It was probably used as a sabotage weapon against German military forces in the 1930s by neighboring European-based resistance groups. Japanese BW scientists investigated typhoid during the 1930s and 1940s, and reportedly used typhoid in at least two sabotage operations during World War II: once in the Nomonhan Incident of 1939 (ineffective), and again in a more successful 1940 effort in the Ningpo Region (south of Shanghai). During the War of Independence (1948), an unconfirmed story has suggested that a special detachment of the Israeli Defense Forces used typhoid bacteria against Palestinian-held villages.
As an infectious organism, typhoid bacteria have been a constant source of disease in military contexts. Among the first vaccines to be developed for warfare, in fact, was a preparation for British troops during the Boer War in the late 19th century. For use as a weapon, it is likely to have been first conceived as a water or food contaminant. Notorious as a public health problem (e.g., Typhoid Mary)—especially before antibiotics and efficacious vaccines were developed—typhoid is now rare in the industrialized world. Typhoid does remain a problem in lesser-developed countries.
Infection begins in the small intestine, after which the organisms multiply and spread to the liver, gallbladder, and spleen. Symptoms of typhoid,which usually only occur upon subsequent bacterial proliferation in the body (bacteremia) over a period of about two weeks, include fever, abdominal pains, and headache. Left untreated, illness continues with high temperature and continued malaise, as well as dark-pink colored spots appearing on the skin of the stomach and chest. One to two percent of infections can result in death, largely due to complications involving perforations in the viscera. While there are two available vaccines for typhoid, it is usually administered only to those who are traveling in endemic areas. Treatment with antibiotics is usually successful, although relapses and sub-clinical infections can also occur. |
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