This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here.
Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.
Phase I: International Pressure Builds against Apartheid, 1950-1970
The National Institute for Defence Research (NIDR) is formed. It later becomes part of the Armaments Development and Production Corporation (ARMSCOR).
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 34.
Israel begins development of guided missiles. During this period, France and Israel collaborate closely on missile development, but the cooperation program ends due to problems with guidance systems. The program is subsequently relocated to Israel. [Note: Over the next 30 years, Israel and South Africa cooperate closely on missile development.]
—Seth W. Carus, "Israeli Ballistic Missile Developments," Testimony before the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States, 15 July 1998, <http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/missile/rumsfeld/pt2_carus2.htm>.
Israel licenses the Uzi submachine gun to South Africa. [Note: This marks one of the first steps in Israeli-South African cooperation on arms-related issues.]
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 35.
A South African military attaché to the United States requests information on US Bullpup missiles and asks if they could be made available to South Africa. The US Navy denies the request, but emphasizes that the United States wishes to help South Africa and proposes a meeting between representatives of both countries to discuss aircraft/missile compatibility.
—Jonathan Moore, Office of the Assistant Secretary of State, "Memorandum for the Director, East and Southern African Affairs," 9 March 1962, secret memo declassified and released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
South African police open fire on demonstrators protesting against pass laws in Sharpeville and kill more than 60 and wound 186 people. The event becomes known as the "Sharpeville Massacre."
—"Sharpeville," Encyclopedia Britannica Online, [undated], <http://search.eb.com/eb/article?eu=68903>.
Britain forces South Africa to leave the Commonwealth, largely in response to the Sharpeville Massacre.
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 30.
UN General Assembly Resolution 1761 calls on member states to refrain from exporting any arms and ammunition to South Africa, and calls on the Security Council to impose an arms embargo against South Africa.
—Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Arms Embargoes against South Africa," in Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention, George W. Shepherd, Jr., ed. (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 97.
South Africa's missile development program begins under the direction of the Armaments Production Board. The early development of the program focuses on surface-to-air, air-to-air, and cruise missiles.
—US Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Africa Report, 8 December 1989, top secret report partially declassified and released 7 May 1996, <http://foia.ucia.gov/>, p. 7.
South Africa provides Israel with 10 tons of uranium.
—US Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, New Information on South Africa’s Nuclear Program and South African-Israeli Nuclear and Military Cooperation, 30 March 1983, top secret repot partially declassified and released 27 April 1997, <http://www.foia.ucia.gov/>, p. 17.
The Kennedy administration debates how to address apartheid in South Africa. Undersecretary of State G. Mennen Williams sends a memo to Secretary of State Dean Rusk recommending that following the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Conference in Addis Ababa, the United States should take more vigorous action against the apartheid regime. He proposes that the administration conduct a review of arms supply policy toward South Africa and examine the possibility of implementing a full embargo against it.
In response, Rusk points out that the president has reminded him that the United States is not the "self-elected gendarmes for the political and social problems of other states." He suggests the United States should not assist South Africa in enforcing its apartheid policy, but should assist them in playing the kind of role they already played in the two world wars. He states that if the United States imposes sanctions against South Africa, they should be part of a larger package that would include sanctions on other countries where different but equally abhorrent situations exist.
Referring to Rusk's memorandum, Undersecretary Williams stresses that the supply of arms to South Africa does vitally affect the direct interests of the United States as well as its moral position. He notes that a complete ban will assist in maintaining a position of influence with African states and help prevent more radical and violent action on the part of these states.
Williams suggests that if no significant action is taken, such as an arms embargo, the United States may lose support on such matters as entry of communist China into the United Nations. Other consequences feared by Williams include the possibility of losing military and scientific facilities in Ethiopia, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, and Zanzibar, and the loss of communication facilities and vital civil airline and military air transport service (MATS) landing and overflight rights in Africa.
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara sends a memo to Secretary Rusk, pointing out that the United States is currently operating the Atlantic Missile Range tracking station near Pretoria. Referring to comments made by National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy that the station has contributed greatly to missile development and other space programs, McNamara stresses that the missile station will continue to be important after 1963, though not vital. He adds that the United States must consider the reaction of NATO allies and the possible divisive effect upon the alliance should the United States give support to a strong African UN resolution. He advises that any decisions on the matter be made in consultation with Great Britain, France, and Belgium. McNamara recommends that the United States clearly state its objections to apartheid in South Africa and its objection to the policies of Portugal in its territories. Secretary McNamara wants to avoid a UN vote in favor of economic sanctions, an arms embargo, or expulsion in the cases of Portugal and South Africa.
National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy sends a memo to President Kennedy outlining his thoughts on how an arms embargo against South Africa would affect the US missile tracking station there. Bundy notes that "while nothing we have there is vital, there is a close relation between the South African missile tracking station and our satellite photography. This station is part of the system of observation of these satellites, and while the program would not be interrupted if we should lose it, prudence would dictate certain additional technical developments to permit effective observation of these satellites…" Bundy concludes by saying, "I myself remain quite favorable to the Black African position, in spite of this possible dollar cost [of a replacement station]."
—G. Mennen Williams, US State Department Memo, "U.S. Policy towards South Africa," 12 June 1963, secret memo declassified and released, in Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), pp. 54-55; Dean Rusk, US Department of State Memorandum, [untitled], 15 June 1963, secret memo declassified and released 20 September 1995, ibid., pp. 59-61; G. Mennen Williams, US Department of State Memorandum, "Arms Policy and South Africa," 12 July 1963, secret memo declassified and released, in Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), pp. 62-63; Dean Rusk and Robert McNamara, "Sale of Submarines to South Africa," 16 September 1963, confidential memo declassified and released, ibid., pp. 62-63; McGeorge Bundy, [untitled], 23 September 1963, secret memo declassified and released, ibid., p. 70; McGeorge Bundy, "Missile Tracking Station in South Africa," 13 July 1963, secret memo declassified and released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
The United States imposes an arms embargo against South Africa in response to its policies of apartheid.
—Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz, eds., How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 283.
The UN Security Council adopts Resolution 181, a voluntary arms embargo against South Africa.
—Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz, eds., How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 283; Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Arms Embargoes against South Africa," in Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention, ed. George W. Shepherd, Jr. (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 97.
UN arms embargos against South Africa are broadened to include sale and shipment of all types of ammunition, arms, military vehicles and equipment, and materials for the manufacture and maintenance of arms and ammunition in South Africa.
—Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Arms Embargoes against South Africa," in Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention, ed. George W. Shepherd, Jr. (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 97.
Britain bars arms exports to South Africa.
—Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz eds., How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 283.
South Africa is excluded from the Tokyo Olympics.
—Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz, eds., How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 283.
The state-run Armaments Board is established to purchase arms and maintain quality and cost control in domestic arms production. The Armaments Board is later absorbed into the Armaments Development and Production Corporation (ARMSCOR).
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), pp. 33-34.
The South African Rocket Research Institute (RRI) is established with responsibility for research and development in the missile field. Its rocket and missile research is facilitated by a cooperation agreement with West German defense industry. Herman Oberth Gesellshaft (an academic organization whose members created a network of approximately 30 private West German firms involved in the rocket industry) and Waffen und Luftrustung actively participate in early rocket construction in South Africa.
—Signe Landgren, Embargo Disimplemented: South Africa's Military Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 103.
Israel uses South African-licensed Mirage aircraft during the Six-Day War.
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 32.
Impressed by Israel's pre-emptive strikes against Egypt in the Six-Day War, South Africa sends the first of several high-level military missions to Israel to study tactics of the Israeli Defence Force (IDF).
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 33.
The deputy director and chief engineer of Israeli Aircraft Industries (IAI) tours South Africa's Atlas Aircraft Industries and discusses the possibility of joint fighter production.
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), p. 34.
The Israeli representative to the United Nations, Joel Barromi, walks out as South Africa's representative prepares to address the United Nations in defense of apartheid. [Note: Although at this time South Africa and Israel are developing greater levels of military cooperation, Israel is still unwilling to overtly support South Africa because of international attitudes and disapproval from the South African Jewish community.]
—James Adams, The Unnatural Alliance (London: Quartet Books, 1984), pp. 34-35.
The South African Rocket Research Institute (RRI) establishes its first missile test site with the assistance of an “unspecified” European company at St. Lucia in Natal, 240 miles north of Durban and 90 miles from the Mozambican border.
—Signe Landgren, Embargo Disimplemented: South Africa's Military Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 103; UN Department of Disarmament Affairs, South Africa's Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile Capability (New York: United Nations, 1991), p. 46.
The Armaments Development and Production Act (No. 57) establishes the Armaments Development and Production Corporation (ARMSCOR; later reorganized as Armaments Corporation of South Africa, but still abbreviated as "ARMSCOR") to consolidate and manage public and private arms manufacturing.
—Rita M. Byrnes, ed., South Africa: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997), p. 351.
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Updated May 2003 |
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