This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here.
Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.
South Africa extends its military frontier beyond Namibia and deep into southern Angola, without any serious challenge by the South West Africa's People's Organization (SWAPO), the Movement for the Popular Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 30,000 Cuban troops, and 3,000 Soviet and East German advisors. During the same period, South Africa strengthens its military grip in Namibia with 25,000 troops based on the border through 1984. [Note: This reflects the growing military build-up in the region and the increasing paranoia of the South African government.]
—Robert Rothen, Henry Bienen, Robert Legworld, and Garvin Maasdrop, South Africa and its Neighbours: Regional Security and Self Interest (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1985), p. 62.
South Africa launches Operation Protea, a conventional invasion of Cunene province in Angola, with more than 10,000 troops. South Africa occupies most of Cunene, including the provincial capital of Ngiva.
—William Minter, Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique (Oxford: Zed Books Ltd., 1994), p. 41.
The new administration of US President Ronald Reagan adopts a policy of strategic cooperation with South Africa, in order to pursue its Cold War objective of countering the perceived communist threat in southern Africa.
—Laurent C.W. Kaela, The Question of Namibia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 106-107.
A new facility for the Advena Circle project is commissioned, 15km east of the Pelindaba/Valindaba nuclear complex. ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) establishes a program at Advena Circle to produce gun-assembled nuclear weapons and their associated air-drop delivery systems. The program also includes studies of implosion and thermonuclear technology and accompanying longer-range ballistic missile delivery systems.
—Frank V. Pabian, "South Africa's Nuclear Weapon Program: Lessons for U.S. Nonproliferation Policy," Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1995, <http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/npr/vol03/31/31pabian.pdf>, p. 6.
In a televised speech, US President Reagan publicly describes South Africa as a friendly country, a wartime ally, and a country of strategic importance to the free world.
—Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), p. 28.
The Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC) bans the transfer of petroleum to South Africa (OPEC Resolution RE 26/5). It also prohibits sale of oil to parties who could re-export to South Africa and prohibits the loading of any vessel that has broken this embargo.
—Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Economic Embargoes against South Africa," in George W. Shepherd, Jr., ed., Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 124.
A classified CIA report notes that relations "between South Africa and Israel have in recent years expanded to include extensive economic dealings and close political ties—and appear to be strong enough to overcome their inherent drawbacks."
—US Central Intelligence Agency, National Foreign Assessment Center, "Africa Report," Supplement, 8 June 1981, secret report partially declassified and released 7 May 1996, <http://foia.ucia.gov/>, p. 2.
In order to effectively maintain its production lines, ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) produces at a level over the needs of the SADF, and enters the international arms market.
—James P. McWilliams, Armscor: South Africa's Arms Merchant (London: Brassey's Ltd, 1989), p. 27.
South Africa and Israel cooperate on development of the Skorpioen ship-to-ship-missile, based on the Israeli Gabriel Mk 2 missile. The Mk 2 is 3.42m long with a body diameter of 0.34m and weighs 522kg at launch. Before launch, the missile guidance system is programmed with the target data obtained from its search radar. It is then fired and guided by "two gyro autopilot" and assumes an initial cruise altitude of about 100m. At a range of 7.5km from the launcher, the onboard autopilot commands the missile to descend to 20m altitude using a radio altimeter to maintain height. At a predetermined distance from the target, the semi-active radar is switched on, the target is acquired, and the missile descends to one of its three possible preset attack altitudes for the final approach. The actual set altitude varies between 1m and 3m and depends upon the sea state encountered at the time. Propulsion is by a solid-propellant boost and sustainer motor. The effective missile range is reported to be 35km, with a cruise speed of mach 0.7. The Semi-Armour-Piercing (SAP) warhead weighs 180kg and contains around 75kg of conventional high explosive (HE).
—Signe Landgren, Embargo Disimplemented: South Africa's Military Industry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 108-109; Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems 36, "Offensive Weapons, Israel, Gabriel," 24 July 2001, <http://online.janes.com>.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) produces its first nuclear explosive device. The South African nuclear weapons arsenal increases at the rate of one device approximately every 18 months, until it includes six weapons by the late 1980s. During this period, the older devices are upgraded. However, according to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) specialists, the "first prototype deliverable device" built at the ARMSCOR facility is not completed until December 1982.
—David Albright, "South Africa's Secret Nuclear Weapons," ISIS Report, Institute for Science and International Security, May 1994, <http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southafrica/ir0594.html>, p. 10; Waldo Stumpf, "South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Program: From Deterrence to Dismantlement," Arms Control Today, 25 December 1995/January 1996, p. 3.
During a press conference, the chairman of the board of directors of ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) states that its G-5 and G-6 SP howitzers are capable of firing 155mm rounds with special nuclear warheads developed in the United States, but that they were not intended for this purpose.
—Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), p. 31.
UN General Assembly Resolution 37/69 condemns the actions of multinational corporations that continue to enhance the military and nuclear capabilities of South Africa through collaboration with the regime, and deplores "the attitude of those States, in particular the United States of America and Israel, which have continued and increased their political, economic, and other collaboration with South Africa." The resolution also "[r]equests the International Atomic Energy Agency to refrain from extending to South Africa any facilities which may assist it in its nuclear plans and, in particular, to exclude South Africa from all its technical working groups."
—Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Arms Embargoes against South Africa," in George W. Shepherd, Jr., ed., Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 98; UN General Assembly, "Policies of the Government of South Africa," A/RES/37/69, 9 December 1982, <http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r069.htm>.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) confiscates 400 square miles on Cape Agulhus in the southern part of South Africa, and installs radars, a landing strip, a missile-assembly plant, a control center, and cylindrical observation towers.
—William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmented World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 454.
The South African government announces that the St. Lucia range will be closed because its proximity to the Mozambican border makes secure tests of long-range weapons difficult. The cabinet subsequently approves construction of a new test site, east of Cape Town.
—UN Department of Disarmament Affairs, South Africa's Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile Capability (New York: United Nations, 1991), p. 20.
The UN Security Council passes Resolution 539, which rejects linking implementation of Resolution 435 on Namibia independence to withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.
—Laurent C.W. Kaela, The Question of Namibia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 106-107.
UN General Assembly Resolution 38/39 calls on member states to prohibit all military and nuclear cooperation with South Africa, including activities by governments, corporations, and individuals within member states.
—Timothy U. Mozia, "Chronology of Arms Embargoes against South Africa," in George W. Shepherd, Jr., ed., Effective Sanctions on South Africa: The Cutting Edge of Economic Intervention (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), p. 99.
A secret US CIA National Intelligence Estimate concludes that South Africa has the capacity to produce nuclear arms "on short notice," and that it has stockpiled components for "several test devices or first generation nuclear weapons that use enriched uranium." The estimate says that South Africa could have produced enough fissile material for a first nuclear device by 1979. Furthermore, the estimate states that South Africa may have "leapfrogged the testing phase" to focus on weaponization and delivery of nuclear explosive devices.
—US Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, "Trends in South Africa's Nuclear Security Policies and Programs," 4 October 1984, top-secret report partially declassified and released on 27 April 1997, <http://www.foia.ucia.gov/>, pp. 16, 25.
Pennsylvania-based International Signal and Control (ISC) illegally ships more than $30 million in military equipment to South Africa. The equipment includes telemetry tracking antennae, gyroscopes, and photo-imaging film readers. Some of the equipment reportedly is transferred to Iraq.
—"South Africa’s Nuclear Autopsy," Risk Report (2) 1, January-February 1996, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>.
Iraq reportedly provides technical assistance to South Africa for its medium-range and nuclear-capable ballistic missile program.
—Tim Kennedy, "Did U.S. Pressure to Curb Israel Arms Sales Prompt Peace Accord?" Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, November/December 1993, <http://www.washington-report.org/backissues>, p. 6.
South Africa begins receiving Jericho I missile technology from Israel.
—William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmented World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 454.
The chairman of ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) suggests that South Africa requires ballistic missiles with a range of 200km to 300km to compensate for an approaching shortfall of South African Air Force (SAAF) strike aircraft.
—UN Department of Disarmament Affairs, South Africa's Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile Capability (New York: United Nations, 1991), p. 24.
Australia bans exports to South Africa of weapons and computer equipment that could be used for security purposes.
—Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz, eds., How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), p. 285.
South Africa announces that it will begin implementing the UN plan for Namibian independence under UN Resolution 435 and withdraw South African Defense Force (SADF) troops from Angola by mid-1989. In return, Angola and Cuba agree to an identical timetable for the withdrawal of all Cuban troops.
—Kenneth W. Grundy, South Africa: Domestic Crisis and Global Challenge (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), p. 115.
Israel conducts the first test-firings of the Jericho II missile.
—Jane’s Strategic Weapon Systems 36, "Offensive Weapons, Israel, Jericho I/2 (YA-1/YA-3)," 24 July 2001, <http://online.janes.com/>.
South African President P.W. Botha establishes the secret National Security Management System (NSMS), a network of committees within the high-level State Security Council. The NSMS is dominated by the South African Defence Force (SADF) and constitutes an alternative government/bureaucracy. [Note: The NSMS is a very powerful body and played a significant role in South Africa's strategic planning.]
—Kenneth W. Grundy, South Africa: Domestic Crisis and Global Challenge (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), p. 121.
South Africa completes construction of facilities capable of producing ballistic missile-sized motors at Somerset West.
—US Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, "Africa Report," 8 December 1989, top-secret report partially declassified and released 7 May 1996, <http://www.foia.ucia.gov/>, p. 7.
The US State Department declares that Angola and Cuba have agreed to a Cuban troop withdrawal from Angola as part of the terms for a still-unresolved regional settlement.
—Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), p. 36.
The European Community imposes sanctions against South Africa for its apartheid policies. The sanctions ban imports of iron, steel, and gold coins from South Africa, and prohibit new investment in South Africa by European companies.
—Paul Lewis, "Western European Nations Impose Weakened Sanctions on Pretoria," New York Times, 17 September 1986, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
US President Ronald Reagan vetoes H.R. 4868, the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, saying it "would seriously impede the prospects for a peaceful end to apartheid and the establishment of a free and open society for all in South Africa."
—"Excerpts from Veto Message on Sanctions," New York Times, 27 September 1986, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
The US Senate overrides Reagan's veto of sanctions against South Africa by a vote of 78 to 21.
—Steven V. Roberts, "Senate, 78 to 21, Overrides Reagan’s Veto and Imposes Sanctions on South Africa," New York Times, 3 October 1986, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
The UN General Assembly passes Resolution 41/35, "[s]trongly condemn[ing] once again the policies and practices of apartheid of the racist regime of South Africa, in particular its brutal oppression, repression and genocidal violence against the people of South Africa," and "[r]equests all States that have not yet done so, pending action by the Security Council, urgently to adopt legislative and other comparable measures to ensure the total isolation of South Africa."
—UN General Assembly, "Policies of the Government of South Africa," A/RES/41/35, 10 November 1986, <http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r035.htm>.
A US DIA report concludes that ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) relies on direct acquisition of foreign technology to help support its weapons manufacturing industry.
—Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: The New Press, 1993), p. 38; US Defense Intelligence Agency, "South Africa: The Effect of Economic Sanctions on the Defense Industry," December 1986, classified report partially declassified and released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
South Africa begins cooperation with Israel on several missile projects, including a version of Israel's Jericho II ballistic missile.
—Jane’s Strategic Weapons Systems 34, "Offensive Weapons, Israel: Jericho I/2 (YA1/YA3)," 19 September 2000, <http://online.janes.com/>.
The British-based Ferranti company buys International Signal and Control (ISC). [Note: ISC is the Pensylvanian-based firm that supplied missile components to South Africa between 1984-1989.]
—Glenn Frankel, "British Firm Claims It Was Duped by Pa. Arms Maker; Ferranti Alleges Acquired, ISC, Made It Appear It Had Secret Contracts," Washington Post, 29 September 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Under pressure from the United States and European Community, the Israeli government decides to reduce ties with South Africa by not renewing military contracts with Pretoria. Old contracts, however, are still honored.
—"State Department Confirms Discussions with Israel on Pretoria Cooperation," Aerospace Daily, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Following numerous published reports on military ties with South Africa, the Israeli cabinet publicly reiterates its adherence to the UN embargo and extends export limits to include new contracts involving military technology.
—Gerald M. Steinberg, "Israel: Case Study for International Missile Trade and Nonproliferation," in William C. Potter and Harlan W. Jenks, eds., The International Missile Bazaar: The New Suppliers Network (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), p. 242.
Israel tests an improved version of the Jericho II missile. During a test-flight, the missile travels more than 800km.
—"Israel: How Far Can Its Missiles Fly?" Risk Report (1) 5, June 1995, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>.
Following defeat of the Soviet-backed offensive in Cuita Cuanavale, Angola, Cuba sends an additional 15,000 troops to Angola.
—Frank V. Pabian, "South Africa's Nuclear Weapon Program: Lessons for U.S. Nonproliferation Policy," Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1995, <http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/npr/vol03/31/31pabian.pdf>, p. 7.
Construction begins on the new Advena Central laboratories. The facility is used for the maintenance of seven canon-type nuclear weapons. [Note: The decision to build more facilities is motivated by South Africa's long-term goal to replace the gun-type devices, and conduct nuclear weapons development work on advanced gun-type and implosion-type devices.] The new Advena building contains enough space to load a warhead onto a ballistic missile, and the new storage vaults have space for one reentry body.
—David Albright, "South Africa's Secret Nuclear Weapons," ISIS Report, May 1994, <http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southafrica/ir0594.html>.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) further diversifies into conventional military pyrotechnics and missile components such as jet vanes. The challenge is to build an implosion weapon to rigorous specifications while remaining small enough to fit on the end of a missile. [Note: The relatively small missile diameter would have placed a tremendous constraint on ARMSCOR's implosion system.]
—David Albright, "South Africa's Secret Nuclear Weapons," Institute for Science and International Security, May 1994, <http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southafrica/ir0594.html>.
South Africa begins building an "airstrip" at Marion Island in the south Atlantic. The facility is believed to be a base for testing ballistic missiles.
—Stephen Milligan, "Washington 'Surprise' at Revelations; South Africa's Nuclear Capability," Times (London), 14 August 1988, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
South African Minister for Economic Affairs and Technology announces that the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research has been commissioned to undertake a feasibility study for a "totally South African space program."
—UN Department of Disarmament Affairs, South Africa's Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile Capability (New York: United Nations, 1991), p. 26.
Cuban and Angolan forces begin a series of advances in southwestern Angola, near the Namibian border.
—Frank V. Pabian, "South Africa's Nuclear Weapon Program: Lessons for U.S. Nonproliferation Policy," Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1995, <http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/npr/vol03/31/31pabian.pdf>, p. 8.
In Angola, a new southern front stretching 400km is manned by 12,000 Cuban troops armed with two hundred tanks, air defense radars, and five different types of surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems.
—Frank V. Pabian, "South Africa's Nuclear Weapon Program: Lessons for U.S. Nonproliferation Policy," Nonproliferation Review, Fall 1995, <http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/npr/vol03/31/31pabian.pdf>, p. 8.
Israel conducts a second flight-test of the modified Jericho II missile.
—"Israel: How Far Can Its Missiles Fly?," Risk Report (1) 5, June 1995, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>.
Israel's first launch of the Shavit satellite launch vehicle (SLV) places the Ofeq-1 satellite into orbit. Using the orbital parameters of the satellite launched, the US Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory concludes that the Shavit SLV could be reconfigured as a ballistic missile capable of delivering a 500kg warhead to a range of 7,500km. Shavit is a three-stage, solid-propellant launcher designed to carry 250kg payloads into low-earth orbit. It has an overall length of 18m, a body diameter of 1.35m and is reported to weigh 23,000kg at launch. Stage 1 is 6.5m long, and has a body diameter of 1.35m. It contains a TAAS Israel Industries Ltd. motor with an unspecified amount of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) solid propellant with a reported burn time of one minute. Attitude control is maintained by four air vanes and four jet vanes, which are jettisoned after the vertical launch phase. Stage 2 is 5.3 meters long and has a body diameter of 1.35 meters. Its motor is similar to Stage 1's, but with expansion ratio increased for altitude performance. The Stage 2 motor also has a burn time of one minute. Attitude control in pitch and yaw is maintained by four liquid-injection thrust vector control (LITVC) modules. Stage 3 is 2.1m long with a body diameter of 1.3m and weighs 2,000kg of which 1,800 kg is propellant. The apogee kick motor is a Rafael AUS-51 "Marble" that has a burn time of 92 seconds. Attitude control is by spin stabilization accomplished with Rafael ST-200N thrusters.
—UN Department of Disarmament Affairs, South Africa's Nuclear Tipped Ballistic Missile Capability (New York: United Nations, 1991), p. 22; Jane's Strategic Weapons Systems 33, "Offensive Weapons (Unclassified Projects) – Satellite Launch Vehicles, Israel," 14 February 2000, <http://online.janes.com/>; Seth W. Carus, "Israeli Ballistic Missile Developments," Testimony before the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States, 15 July 1998, <http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/missile/rumsfeld/pt2_carus2.htm>; Leonard Spector with Jacqueline Smith, Nuclear Ambitions (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), p. 162.
The Angola-Namibia peace accords pave the way for South African and Cuban withdrawal from Angola and the independence of Namibia.
—William Gutteridge, South Africa's Defence and Security into the 21st Century (Aldershot, UK: Dartmouth, 1996), p. 3.
The Israeli Jericho II enters service. The Jericho II reportedly has two solid-propellant stages, a length of 14 meters, a body diameter of 1.56 meters, and a launch weight of 26,000kg. The motors are manufactured by Israel Military Industries, which make the solid-propellant motors for the Shavit satellite launch vehicle (SLV) and later the Arrow ABM system. The first stage’s motor burns for 52 seconds and the second stage’s for 85 seconds, with boost burn completed at around 105km altitude. An alternative launch weight of 21,935kg is also been reported, with a first stage weight of 10,970kg and a second stage weight of 9,965kg. The payload capability is reported to be around 1,000kg, permitting either nuclear or conventional high explosive (HE) warheads. The warhead separates after the boost phase of flight. The missile has inertial guidance and the re-entry vehicle may also have a radar image correlation system for terminal guidance. Jericho II is reported to be located in underground caves and silos, but it is believed that the missile is also road mobile with a wheeled transporter-erector launcher (TEL), or launch capability from railroad flat trucks. The missile is reported to have a maximum range of 1,500km, but could have a range of around 3,500km with a 1,000kg payload. The TEL vehicle used to launch Jericho II is believed to be 16m long and supported by three vehicles for command and communications, site survey and weather. [Note: The short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) South Africa tests in July 1989 is widely believed to be a version of the Jericho II.]
—Jane's Strategic Weapon Systems 36, "Offensive Weapons, Israel, Jericho I/2 (YA-1/YA-3)," 24 July 2001, <http://online.janes.com/>.
According to a CIA assessment, the South African missile program would not make sense unless the missile was intended to carry a nuclear warhead. A US official reveals privately that the South Africas government has resisted disclosure of nuclear activities in part to prevent revelations about its cooperation with Israel.
—David Albright and Mark Hibbs, "South Africa: The ANC and the Atom Bomb," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 1993, <http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/1993/a93/
a93AlbrightHibbs.html>, p. 6.
According to a DIA assessment, South Africa's regional neighbors who are already threatened by past SADF attacks would be further intimidated by a South African ballistic missile. South African planners consider overwhelming military superiority a key factor in limiting Frontline State support to anti-apartheid guerillas, minimizing external pressure for reform and reassuring the white population. The report notes that most of South Africa’s neighbors are too poor to purchase a countervailing system.
—US Defense Intelligence Agency, "South Africa: Missile Activity," 5 July 1989, classified intelligence appraisal declassified and partially released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
South Africa possesses six devices in its nuclear arsenal each containing 55kg of highly enriched uranium (HEU), and enough HEU for a seventh device. The devices are stored unassembled with the front and rear portions of the weapons stored in separate vaults. In order to prevent premature detonation, the weapons arm once they reach a certain altitude while on board delivery aircraft.
—David Albright, "South Africa's Secret Nuclear Weapons," ISIS Report, May 1994, <http://www.isis-online.org/publications/southafrica/ir0594.html>.
South Africa substantially increases its defense budget for 1990. Half of the proposed budget is a secret allocation, which some foreign analysts believe includes funds for ballistic missile development.
—Gavin Bell, "Pretoria Steps Up Secret Buying of Weaponry," The Times (London), 20 March 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
The United States reportedly receives a "very reliable" intelligence report that Israel is aiding South Africa's effort to develop an intermediate-range missile. When US Ambassador Thomas Pickering raises the issue with Israeli authorities in Tel Aviv, he is rebuffed and told "it is none of Washington’s business."
—David B. Ottaway and R. Jeffrey Smith, "U.S. Knew of Israel-S. Africa Missile Deal," Washington Post, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
During a briefing to military attaches assigned to Pretoria, the ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) manager for client relations states that the future of the company lies in missile development. He also indicates that the company is confident of its ability to produce ground-based equipment for the army.
—United States Embassy, South Africa, Office of the Defense Attaché, "ARMSCOR—Overview of South African Armaments Corporation Presented to the Attache Association in Pretoria," 17 May 1989, classified embassy cable declassified and partially released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
Implementation of UN Resolution 435 on Namibian independence is due to commence, but is delayed due to fighting between South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) and paramilitary police in northern Namibia.
—Laurent C.W. Kaela, The Question of Namibia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 106-107.
South African Foreign Minister Pik Botha writes to the UN secretary general, threatening to break the Angola-Namibia peace accords if the fighting continues between South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerillas and paramilitary police forces.
—Laurent C.W. Kaela, The Question of Namibia (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 106-107.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) acquires control of Atlas Aircraft Corporation. The organization and its subsidiaries grow rapidly in the late 1960s and early 1970s and include, Somchem a converted factory used for the production of propellants, explosives, rocket-propellant systems, and rockets.
—United States Embassy, South Africa, Office of the Defense Attaché, "ARMSCOR—Overview of South African Armaments Corporation Presented to the Attache Association in Pretoria," 17 May 1989, secret embassy cable declassified and partially released, Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
The Soviet satellite Kosmos 2019 tracks preparations for an upcoming ballistic missile test launch at Overberg Test Range (Arniston), South Africa.
—William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmented World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 446.
The Washington Times reports that with assistance from Israel, South Africa plans to test launch a new intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM). In response, an ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) spokesman confirms that the company has over the last six years built a missile test range at Overberg and that missiles are being fired to test their performance. At the same time, US Intelligence sources report that South Africa is close to launching a modified version of the Israeli Jericho II IRBM. Reconnaissance satellite images show that the test-launch is likely to be carried out from a facility near Cape Town. The facility is reportedly identical to an Israeli launch site in the Negev Dessert. Officials say the new missile has been under development since at least 1987 and will also be used as a booster for launching photo-reconnaissance satellites. A CIA assessment reportedly also suggests that a second test of the more advanced Israeli Shavit (Comet) satellite launch vehicle (SLV), which might be converted to a 3,200km range, is also being prepared at the site.
—"South Africa to Test-launch IRBM," Jane's Defence Weekly, 1 July 1989, 1354; Martin Walker, "S Africa 'About to Test Medium-Range Missile'," Guardian (London), 21 June 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; Bill Gertz, "S. Africa on the Brink of Ballistic Missile Test," Washington Times, 24 June 1989, pp. A1, A10.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) announces that it has successfully tested a booster rocket from the Overberg test range outside Cape Town. Although South African sources describe the launch as a booster rocket, outside analysts suggest that it may have been a test-flight of an intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM). A US (DIA) Special Assessment calls the missile a "probable SRBM [short-range ballistic missile]." US intelligence sources report that the rocket plume of the missile bears a striking resemblance to Israel’s Jericho missile. The DIA report notes that if Israel and South Africa are collaborating, a high-level if not senior-level Israeli delegation was probably present for the test. The missile flies 1,620 kilometers southeast toward Prince Edward Island.
—"South African Missile Test," Jane's Defence Weekly, 15 July 1989, 59; Michael R. Gordon, "U.S. Sees Israeli Help in Pretoria’s Missile Work," New York Times, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; US Defense Intelligence Agency, "Special Assessment, South Africa: Missile Activity," 5 July 1989, declassified and partially released, in Kenneth Mokoena, ed., South Africa and the United States: The Declassified History (New York: New Press, 1993), pp. 167-168; William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmented World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), pp. 446-448; John Pike, "Overberg Test Range OTB Arniston South Africa," 29 May 2000, <http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/rasa/facility/overberg.htm>.
Israel conducts a third test of the improved Jericho II. The missile flies nearly 1,300km, putting southern Russia and Iran in range.
—"Israel: How Far Can Its Missiles Fly?" Risk Report (1) 5, June 1995, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>.
Reformist candidate F.W. de Klerk is elected president of South Africa.
—"De Klerk Promises Reforms As Anti-Apartheid Leaders Held," Guardian (London), 15 September 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
On the advice of his senior political aides and advisors, President F.W. de Klerk decides that in order to end South Africa's isolation from the international community, both the political system of apartheid and the nuclear weapons program must be dismantled. De Klerk summons Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Executive Chairman Wynand de Villiers and Waldo Stumpf to inform them of his intention to terminate the nuclear weapons program and accede to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). De Klerk asks them to draw up a schedule to implement his directive.
—Adrian Hadland, "SA’s Nuclear Delusions Lie in Ruins, But They Still Cost a Fortune," Independent Online, 26 January 1998, <http://www.inc.co.za/>; Waldo Stumpf, "South Africa's Limited Nuclear Deterrent Programme and the Dismantling thereof Prior to South Africa's Accession to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty," Press Conference, Washington, 23 July 1993.
The London branch of Pennsylvania-based International Signal and Control (ISC) is alleged to have manufactured chemical weapons and sold electronic equipment to South Africa in violation of UN sanctions. The US Defense Department placed a $1.085 million order for binary nerve gas shell and missile casings with the Marquardt Corporation, ISC's rocket and armaments division, in 1988. The order was allegedly part of the US government’s top secret Big-Eye chemical weapon project. Jacq Van Der Heyden, who worked for ESI, (a London marketing operation controlled by ISC, until 1986) confirms that ESI sold ISC products to South Africa and elsewhere but said that the South African sales were "mainly electronic equipment."
—Daniel John, Ben Laurance, and Patrick Donovan, "Chemical Weapon Link to Ferranti Subsidiary," Guardian (London), 23 September 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
US officials publicly accuse Israel of assisting South Africa in developing a medium-range missile. Although Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir denies such involvement, the Israeli Defense Ministry issues a statement hinting that some cooperation may be occurring, but only under old contracts.
The US State Department confirms that it held discussions with Israel regarding the development of missiles and military cooperation with South Africa. Israeli sources subsequently confirm reports of cooperation with South Africa on a variety of projects including the joint development of a surface-to-surface missile armed with a nuclear warhead. Brigadier General Hagai Regev, an official at the Israeli Embassy in Pretoria, reportedly heads the joint missile development project.
—"State Department Confirms Discussions with Israel on Pretoria Cooperation," Aerospace Daily, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; Michael R. Gordon, "U.S. Sees Israeli Help in Pretoria's Missile Work," New York Times, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
NBC News reports that Israel has "secretly given South Africa access" to the "nuclear club." Quoting anonymous intelligence sources, the network says that Israel is in a partnership with Pretoria to produce a missile with a nuclear warhead for South Africa in exchange for enriched uranium and access to a long-range test site. The report identifies ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) as builder of the missile and Urdan, an Israeli firm outside of Tel Aviv, as the front company responsible for transferring missile technology. Israeli General Hagai Ravev, a former senior adviser to Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin, allegedly oversees the project from Jerusalem.
In a follow-up report, NBC claims that Israel is also sharing aviation technology with Pretoria and that at least 75 Israeli engineers have gone to South Africa to work on aviation projects. The report also alleges that South Africa is developing a site to construct a long-range missile with Israel, which the CIA designates as IRAH-3.
—Michael R. Gordon, "U.S. Sees Israeli Help in Pretoria's Missile Work," New York Times, 27 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; NBC Nightly News, 25 October 1989, transcript of broadcast 25 October 1989, pp. 1-2.
Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir further denies reports that Israel provided missile technology to South Africa. Shamir tells Israel Radio that there is "no truth" to the NBC News report alleging a partnership between Israel and South Africa to develop nuclear missile capability.
—"S. Africa Nuclear Link Denied," Los Angeles Times, 26 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
IBM officials withhold the sale of all mainframe computers to Israel, pending an investigation into the alleged transfer of ballistic missile technology from Israel to South Africa. Although the US Department of Defense backs the sale, IBM cooperates fully with international sanctions against South Africa and fears that Israel would transfer IBM computer technology to South Africa.
—Kenneth Kaplan, "IBM Withholds Computer Despite Pentagon Backing," Jerusalem Post, 29 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/
universe>.
US President George Bush warns that any cooperation on nuclear missiles between Israel and South Africa would complicate US-Israeli relations. Israeli Prime Minister Shamir responds by saying those responsible for leaking information to NBC News sought to sabotage US-Israeli relations.
—Wolf Blitzer, David Makovsky, and Dan Petreanu, "It Would 'Complicate' Jerusalem-Washington Ties. Bush Warns Israel on N-Deal with S. Africa," Jerusalem Post, 29 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
A US State Department spokesman reports that the United States has "no indication" that Israel transferred any US missile technology to South Africa, and refuses to comment on reports that Israel and South Africa collaborated to develop and test intermediate-range missiles. The spokesman further states that the United States is applying “the same guidelines” to Israel as it does to other Third World countries under the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
—"State Dept. Sees No Israel-South Africa," Washington Post, 28 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
The Bush administration expresses its opposition to proposed mandatory sanctions against companies transferring ballistic missile technology to third world nations. Assistant Secretary of State Richard A. Clark tells a House panel that "no new legislative authority" is necessary and that a bill requiring the president to impose sanctions "could hinder rather than enhance" US ability to combat the problem. Clarke adds that the administration is concerned "that legislation could damage essential international cooperative efforts to deal with [missile] proliferation." Responding to recent reports of South African-Israeli missile cooperation, Clarke warns, "if there is a corporate relationship, or government relationship [between Israel and South Africa on missile development] then this legislation…might mandate that we terminate a variety of programs with Israel."
A bill aimed at imposing sanctions on persons violating Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) regulations is subsequently passed by Congress. The Missile Equipment Technology Act of 1989 strengthens existing US export controls on the transfer of missile equipment. It also requires the president to deny issuing export licenses to or ban the importation of products from a foreign person that has exported or imported missile equipment and technology in violation of the MTCR.
—David B. Ottaway, "Bush Aides Say Sanctions Could End Israeli Programs," Washington Post, 31 October 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; US Senate, "Missile Equipment and Technology Control Act of 1989," 19 November 1989, <http://thomas.loc.gov/>.
The last South African troops withdraw from Namibia.
—Rita M. Byrnes, ed., South Africa: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1997), p. xxx.
US Department of Defense officials raise questions about an Israeli request to buy an upgraded version of the IBM 3090 mainframe computer that could simulate the trajectories of ballistic missiles. Although the Pentagon sees the request as an opportunity to acquire information about Israel's civil and military booster research programs, it is concerned by recent reports of South Africa's test-firing of an intermediate-range missile built with Israeli assistance.
—"Pentagon Queries Israeli Missile Computer Purchases," Flight International, 4 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
CIA officials tell US representatives and senators in a closed briefing that Israel has been involved in extensive cooperation with South Africa on ballistic missiles in recent years.
—Wolf Blitzer, "No Confirmation of Joint Development of Nuclear Weapons. CIA Says Report of Israel-SA Cooperation Is Partly True," Jerusalem Post, 5 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Arthur H. Hughes, US Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs, sends a memo to the undersecretary of defense for policy concerning Israel-South African missile cooperation. It is subsequently released through the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), but the entire two-page memo is blacked out.
—Office of Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Near Eastern and South Asian Affair, "Israel-South African Missile Cooperation," 3 November 1989, Secret memo declassified and partially released [release date unknown], Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/>.
During an Oval Office meeting, US President Bush confronts Israeli Prime Minster Yitzhak Shamir over Israel’s alleged military cooperation with South Africa, in what White House officials characterize as an "unusually direct" conversation. Bush's demeanor is also a reflection of US officials' growing frustration with the slow progress of the Middle East peace process.
—Susan Page, "Bush Puts Shamir on Oval Office Carpet," Newsday, 16 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
During a one-hour secret meeting in Washington, a group of black and Jewish members of Congress extensively question Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir about his country's military links and cooperation in missile technology with South Africa. Among the 10 congressmen at the meeting is Ronald Dellums, chairman of the Congressional Black Caucus. Dellums and other black members requested the meeting with Shamir after they are briefed by the CIA, DIA, and State Department on cooperation between Israel and South Africa. The representatives reportedly are "not satisfied" with Shamir's answers.
—Seema Sirohi, "South Africa: Congressmen Question Shamir on Military Links," Inter Press Service, 16 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
Five people are indicted in a scheme to export gyroscopes to South Africa that could be used in ballistic missiles. US Customs officials seize five gyroscopes manufactured by Northrop Corporation bound for South Africa during a raid on a home in Warwick, Rhode Island. The Customs seizure, part of "Operation Exodus," uncovers a scheme to export an initial order of $300,000 worth of gyroscopes to South Africa and planned contracts for $50 million worth of military equipment. The gyroscopes are reportedly intended for anti-tank missiles being developed by South Africa. Two US and three South African citizens are indicted in the scheme, which was to ship the items through an Israeli front company called Kivun Communications and Guidance Systems, Ltd. From Israel the gyroscopes were to be exported to Perfezou Imports & Exports and eventually to ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa). Also mentioned in the indictment is Israel Aircraft Industries, a government-owned company that made initial contact with Northrop about the gyroscopes.
A federal grand jury indicts Frank J. Randazzo (United States); Symone N. Behrmann (South Africa); Maryanne E. Callaghan (United States); Guy Perfezou (South Africa), and Lester George Buckingham Talbor (South Africa) on charges of conspiracy, violation of the Arms Export Control Act, and US anti-apartheid sanctions. Also named as a defendant is Perfezou’s company, Perfezou Imports & Exports Ltd, of Maraisburg, South Africa. The defendants tell customs agents that their work was approved by South African government officials. Randazzo and Behrmann later plead guilty to charges in the case and a federal jury finds Callaghan guilty. Perfezou and Talbot are fugitives and believed to be living in South Africa.
—"South Africa's Nuclear Autopsy," The Risk Report (2) 1, January-February 1996, pp. 4-5, 10, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, <http://www.wisconsinproject.org/>; Pete Yost, "Five Charged With Conspiring to Sell South Africa Banned Goods," AP, 16 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; Dan Carmichael, "Indictments in Israel, South Africa Weapons Deal," UPI, 16 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; "Woman Convicted of Conspiracy in South Africa Scheme," UPI, 4 April 1990, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>; "Businessman Pleads Guilty in Export Scheme," AP, 6 January 1990, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
The South African government denies any connection with five people indicted in a conspiracy to illegally ship missile guidance equipment to ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa). At a news conference, US Attorney Jay Stephens said "the inference to be drawn" is that ARMSCOR "either requested" that the defendants obtain the gyroscopes or that the arms brokers knew ARMSCOR would be an "interested purchaser." However, Patrick Evans, a spokesperson at the South African Embassy in Washington, DC said his country was "well aware" of the US laws and regulations, "particularly in the field of the arms boycott," and would do nothing to circumvent them. He says that "[t]he natural extension of that statement is that there is no one in South Africa or its agencies who is involved in this matter."
—Pete Yost, "South African Government Denies Link With Illegal Arms," AP, 17 November 1989, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
President de Klerk's Expert Committee recommends the termination and complete dismantlement of South Africa's nuclear weapons program. De Klerk agrees and assembles a working group of ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) and Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) officials to advise him on a timetable for dismantlement and the earliest possible date when South Africa could join the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
—J.W. de Villiers, Roger Jardine, and Mitchell Reiss, "Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb," Foreign Affairs, November/December 1993, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com/universe>.
A CIA report concludes that South Africa is preparing series production of solid-fuel motors that could be used in both ballistic missiles and space launch vehicles.
—US Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Africa Report, 8 December 1989, top-secret report partially declassified and released, 7 May 1996, <http://foia.ucia.gov/>, p. 7.
UN General Assembly Resolution 44/113 notes "with great concern" that "collaboration between Israel and South Africa has resulted in the development by South Africa of a nuclear-tipped missile." The resolution also requests the Secretary-General to report to the General Assembly at its 45th session on the military assistance that South Africa is receiving from Israel, and any other sources in advanced missile technology, as well as supporting technical facilities.
—UN General Assembly, "Implementation of the Declaration on the Denuclearization of Africa," A/RES/44/113, 15 December 1989, <http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r113.htm>.
ARMSCOR (Armaments Corporation of South Africa) now consists of 12 subsidiary companies and various R&D and test facilities.
—Peter Batchelor and Susan Willett, Disarmament and Defence: Industrial Adjustment in South Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 32-33.
Israel allegedly uses the Overberg Test Range on at least three occasions to test-launch the medium-range Jericho II missile.
—William E. Burrows and Robert Windrem, Critical Mass: The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in a Fragmented World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 455.
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