This annotated chronology is based on the data sources that follow each entry. Public sources often provide conflicting information on classified military programs. In some cases we are unable to resolve these discrepancies, in others we have deliberately refrained from doing so to highlight the potential influence of false or misleading information as it appeared over time. In many cases, we are unable to independently verify claims. Hence in reviewing this chronology, readers should take into account the credibility of the sources employed here.

Inclusion in this chronology does not necessarily indicate that a particular development is of direct or indirect proliferation significance. Some entries provide international or domestic context for technological development and national policymaking. Moreover, some entries may refer to developments with positive consequences for nonproliferation.

1993
A classified Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) report claims Syria began developing chemical weapons in the 1970s. This is the only reference to Syria's indigenous efforts beginning so early.
—E J Hogendoorn, "A Chemical Weapons Atlas," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53 (September/October 1997), <http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/1997/so97/so97hogendoom.html>. [Note: There is reference to a 1990 DIA report, "Offensive Chemical Warfare Programs in the Middle East," which had been released in sanitized form to the author under the freedom of information act.]

1993
Syria allegedly receives a shipment of 850 kilograms of methylphosphonyl dichloride (a CW precursor) from Russia on the authority of the chairman of the Presidential Committee on CBW Convention Problems, Lt-Gen Anatoliy Kuntsevich.
—Interfax (Moscow) in English, 22 October 1995, as in FBIS-SOV-95-204, 23 October 1995, pp. 29-30.

January 1993
In Moscow, the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service presents a report, "New Challenge after the 'Cold War': Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction." The 130-page report includes an account of WMD programs at various stages of development in 16 countries, including the Syrian CW program.
—Baniel Sneider, "Former KGB details Nuclear Arms Spread," Christian Science Monitor, 1 February 1993.

April 1993
Syria is described as possessing the largest and most advanced chemical warfare program in the Arab world. Syria is reported to have begun to produce tube and rocket artillery rounds filled with mustard type blister agents. Syria is also reported to be seeking assistance from Chinese and Western companies in the development of more advanced chemical warheads.
—Michael Eisenstadt, "Syria's Strategic Weapons," Jane's Intelligence Review 5 (April 1993), <http://www.janes.com>.

May 1993
Syria has reportedly received assistance from North Korea in the development of its chemical weapons capabilities beginning in the late 1980s.
—Joseph S Bermudez, Jr., "North Korea's Chemical and Biological Warfare Arsenal," Jane's Intelligence Review 5 (May 1993), pp. 225-228, <http://www.janes.com>.

June 1993
US Defense Secretary Les Aspin, in a speech to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, speaking of the growing challenge faced by Israel from ballistic missiles with nuclear or CBW warheads notes that Syria has chemical weapons and is seeking long-range missiles.
—"Israel safer today than at any time, but new threats loom – Aspin," Defense Daily, 16 June 1993, p. 434.

September 1993
In the US House of Representatives, Representative Tom Lantos, the Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations and Human Rights, releases a staff compilation of information on "400 companies from 40 countries that have supplied goods and production equipment with dual civilian and military applications" to Libya, Syria, Iran, and North Korea.
—United States Congress, 1st Session, House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations and Human Rights, Hearings on US Security Policy Toward Rogue Regimes, 28 July and 14 September 1993.

November 1993
In Germany, Federal Economics Ministry official Hans Dieter Hermann, addressing a meeting of experts in Frankfurt, states that there are chemical weapons programs in Syria and that it is urgently attempting to set up its own production plants.
—Deutsche Press Association from Frankfurt, 1642 hrs GMT 2 November 1993, as translated from the German in JPRS-TND-93-036, 17 November 1993, p. 44.

April 1994
Concern is expressed that North Korea is assisting Syria in the development of chemical and biological weapons and warheads.
—"Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme Special Report," Jane's Intelligence Review 6 (April 1994), p. 192, <http://www.janes.com>.

June 1994
In the US Congress, a study of potential military countermeasures against nuclear and CBW weapons proliferation is published by the Congressional Research Service. It includes Syria in a list of 12 states that probably possess chemical weapons.
—John M Collins, Zachary S. Davis, and Steven R Bowman, Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapon Proliferation: Potential Military Countermeasures: Congressional Research Service Report for Congress No. 94-528 S, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1994).

May 1995
Dany Shoham, of the Begin-al-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, states that Syria produces hundreds of tons of chemical weapons a year, chiefly sarin and VX. These agents have been loaded into thousands of aircraft bombs that can be delivered by the Sukhoi-22, Sukhoi-24, and MiG- 23 aircraft possessed by Syria. Syria also has, so the newspaper reporting continues, 100-200 CW warheads for its Scud-B missiles.
—D. Shoham, Chemical Weapons in Egypt and Syria: Evolution, Capabilities, Control [in Hebrew], 1995. [Note: English-language synopsis courtesy of the author.]

September 1995
The Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies in Israel describes Syria's CW capabilities as follows: personal protective equipment and Soviet-type unit decontamination equipment; stockpiles of various CW agents including mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin and VX (the latter "unconfirmed"); chemically filled aerial bombs and chemical warheads for surface-to-surface missiles.
—The Middle East Military Balance, 1994-1995 (Tel Aviv: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, 1995).

October 1995
In Russia, the former chairman of the Presidential Committee on CBW Convention Problems, Lt-Gen Anatoliy Kuntsevich, is under criminal investigation in connection with the export of CW-related chemicals to the Middle East. According to the FSS, General Kuntsevich had sold 815 kilograms to Syria in 1993; and the FSS had blocked a further 5-ton shipment in 1994. The chemical is later identified as methylphosphonyl dichloride.
—Interfax (Moscow) in English, 1250 hrs GMT 22 October 1995, as in FBIS-SOV-95-204, 23 October 1995, pp. 29-30; Vil Mirzayanov, statement before the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, 1 November1995, as transcribed over Federal Document Clearing House, Inc, FDCH Political Transcripts, 1 November 1995, "Hearing on weapons of mass destruction", via Lexis-Nexis.

June 1996
Syria is building a chemical weapons factory in Aleppo, according to the German weekly magazine Stern, which states that US intelligence officials have passed satellite imagery of the plant to their German counterparts, who are now investigating possible German industrial involvement in the Syrian project.
—Reuter from Bonn as in Jerusalem Post, 5 June 1996, p. 1, "Syria said to be building poison gas plant," via Lexis-Nexis; Rudolf Lambrecht and Leo Müller, "Giftgas gegen Israel," Stern, 6 June 1996, pp. 16-21.

June 1996
Responding to allegations that Syria is constructing a chemical weapons production facility, the Minister of Information, Dr Muhammad Salman, neither confirms nor denies the report. He says, "Syria is entitled to possess any weapons it deems necessary to face up to its enemies."
—Ibrahim 'Awad and Al-Sharq al-Awsat, 6 June 1996, p. 4, as translated from the Arabic in FBIS-NES-96-110, 6 June 1996, p. 39.

June 1996
In Germany, the managing director of Rose GmbH, Mr. Hans-Joachim Rose, is reported to be under investigation by German authorities for possible involvement in the Syrian chemical weapons program. Mr. Rose is already on trial for illegally exporting chemical equipment to Libya.
—Rudolf Lambrecht and Leo Müller, "Giftgas gegen Israel," Stern, 6 June 1996, pp. 16-21.

September 1996
Western and Israeli Intelligence sources reveal that Syria has received at least two consignments of material for the manufacture of chemical weapons through the Greek Cypriot port of Limassol. The two consignments apparently originated in Russia and Cuba. However, it is believed that several Western European companies have also sent material to Syria via the same route.
—"Syria's Chemical Weapons - The Cyprus Connection," CDISS News and Views - September 1996, <http://www.cdiss.org>.

November 1996
Syria's CW stockpile is described as comprising thousands of aerial bombs filled with chemical agents and between 100 and 200 chemical warheads for Scud-B and Scud-C surface-to-surface missiles.
—Jerusalem Post, 22 November 1996, <http://web.lexis-nexis.com>.

April 1997
Israeli officials claim that, with Russian assistance, Syria has begun to produce VX nerve agent and is in the initial stages of preparing missiles warheads to deliver the agent. Israeli Defense Minister Yitzhak Mordechai states that he has discussed this development with the US and UK governments. The Israeli claims are vigorously denied by Syrian sources, which respond that Israeli is attempting to distract attention from its hard-line on peace negotiations.
—"Israeli claims that Syria is making VX nerve gas," Jane's Defence Weekly, 7 May 1997, p. 6, <http://www.janes.com>; David Rudge and Michal Yudelman, "Levy, Mordechai warn Syria over nerve gas" Jerusalem Post, 30 April 1997, <http://www.jpost.com/com/Archive/30.Apr.1997/News/Article-8.html>.

29 April 1997
The Chemical Weapons Convention enters into force. Syria remains outside the regime.
—Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, <http://www.opcw.org>.

May 1997
President Assad states that if Israel will rid itself of nuclear weapons, Arab states will be ready to get rid of other weapons. This statement appears to be oblique confirmation of the possession of chemical weapons.
—Al-Hayat (London), 2 May 1997, pp. 1, 6.

September 1997
US Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) officials claim that Syria will begin producing chemical bomblets for Scud-C missiles at a new facility near Damascus within months. The facility is described by Israeli intelligence officials as co-located with the Centre D'Etudes et de Recherche Scientifique. The current Syrian arsenal is described as being composed of unitary chemical warheads. It is also claimed that Scud-B missiles have been fitted with VX warheads since 1979-1982. [Note: Passage is unclear and may simply refer to the missiles rather than the warheads.]
—Paul Beaver, "Syria to Make Chemical Bomblets for Scud C's," Jane's Defence Weekly, 3 September 1997, p. 3.

April 1998
A description is provided of one of Syria's alleged CW production facilities near the city of Homs. It is co-located with a large petro-chemical facility.
—"Middle East, CW Production Site," Jane's Intelligence Review 10 (April 1998), p. 25, <http://www.janes.com>.

May 1998
Israeli military intelligence sources claim that Syria has moved two Scud-C units, believed to be equipped with chemical warheads, into the Damascus region. Reference is also made to Syria efforts to develop "novichok," which can supposedly be produced using unrestricted chemicals.
—"Syrian Scuds Move South, We Reveal What Target In Israel They Will Be Able To Hit," Jane's Foreign Report, 7 May 1998, <http://www.janes.com>.

May 1998
Israeli Defense Minister Yitzhak Mordechai briefs the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Security Committee that Syrian long-range, ground-to-ground missiles including the Scud C, have been equipped with VX nerve agent, which Mordechai said changes the strategic balance between Israel and Syria.
—"Mordechai Warns of Syrian Missile Development," Ha'aretz, 19 May 1998, <http://www.haaretzdaily.com>.

May 1998
Israeli sources claim, apparently on the basis of satellite images, that Syria has carried out a live agent test of VX mounted on a Scud-C missile.
—"The Great Arsenal of Autocracy: Syria's Weapons of Mass Destruction," Middle East Intelligence Bulletin (February 1999), <http://www.meib.org/issues/9902.htm#me2>.

June 1998
A senior Israeli military intelligence officer tells the Knesset Committee on Foreign Affairs and Security that Syria continues to manufacture Scud C missiles and will soon have the capability to make VX nerve agent.
—"Syria Close to Producing Nerve Gas," Ha'aretz, 24 June 1998, <http://www.haaretzdaily.com>.

July 1998
Israeli intelligence sources allege that Syria is about to locally produce quantities of VX agent. The item also alleges, though without providing details, that Syria has previously received VX from foreign sources.
—"Syria to make VX gas, says Israel," Jane's Defence Weekly, 1 July 1998, p. 7, <http://www.janes.com>.

September 1999
Israeli Intelligence Chief Amos Malka states that "[T]he Syrians are manufacturing and developing more ground-to-ground missiles, and I think we have to suppose that they also have chemical weapons."
—"Warning on Syrian Chemical Weapons," Jane's Intelligence Digest, 1 October 1999, <http://www.janes.com>.

Late October 1999
The Syrian Air Force conducts a chemical weapons test using an unidentified live agent dropped from a MiG-23 fighter-bomber.
—Arieh O'Sullivan and Itim Adds, "Syria tested chemical bomb," Jerusalem Post, 28 November 1999, p. 1.

July 2000
The UK government publishes its third annual report on Strategic Export Controls, which reveals that export licenses for Australia Group chemicals were issued for destinations in Syria and at least 54 other countries.
—The CBW Conventions Bulletin, September 2000, p. 42.

October 2000
The Director-General of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Jose Bustani, addresses the UN General Assembly and calls upon Middle East nations to accede to the Chemical Weapons Convention. In response, the Syrian delegate draws attention to the threat posed to his nation by Israeli nuclear weapons.
—The CBW Conventions Bulletin, December 2000, pp. 43-44.

January 2001
US Defense Secretary William Cohen releases the third edition of "Proliferation: Threat and Response," which includes a section describing Syrian CW capabilities. Syria is said to have a stockpile of sarin and to be developing VX.
—Proliferation Threat and Response (Washington, DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2001), p. 45.

July 2001
On 1 July 2001, Syria tests a Scud-B missile fitted with a simulated chemical warhead. The missile was fired from Haleb in northern Syria, traveling to a target area 300km away in southern Syria.
—David C. Isby, "Syrian Scud Carried A Simulated Chemical Warhead," Jane's Missiles and Rockets, 1 September 2001, <http://www.janes.com>.

December 2001
US officials state that if Syria has not "already weaponized a VX warhead, they are pretty close."
—Steve Rodan and Andrew Koch, "Israel warns of Syria's work on CW-tipped Scuds," Jane's Defense Weekly, 12 December 2001, <http://www.janes.com>.

March 2002
The Los Angeles Times prints extracts from the classified "Nuclear Posture Review," which was submitted to the Congress in January 2002. The review states that US nuclear weapons could be used in three types of situation: against targets able to withstand non-nuclear attack; in retaliation for attacks with nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons; or "in the event of surprising military developments." The review also includes a list of seven countries against which US nuclear weapons could be used, including Syria.
—Paul Richter, "US Works Up Plan For Using Nuclear Arms," Los Angeles Times, 9 March 2002, p. A1.

April 2002
In the US Senate, Senator Boxer introduces the Syria Accountability Act of 2002 (S 2215). The draft would express the sense of Congress that "the government of Syria should halt the development and deployment of short- and medium-range ballistic missiles and cease the development and production of biological and chemical weapons." The act would make it US policy that "Syria's acquisition of weapons of mass destruction and ballistic missile programs threaten the security of the Middle East and the national interests of the United States." Sanctions are also provided for in the act.
—The CBW Conventions Bulletin, June 2002, p. 44.

May 2002
US Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security John Bolton delivers a speech in which he draws attention to Syrian possession of weapons of mass destruction and its ties to terrorist groups.
—Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security John Bolton, Beyond the Axis of Evil: Additional Threats from Weapons of Mass Destruction, Remarks to the Heritage Foundation, 6 May 2002, <http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/9962.htm>.

March 2003
Sources in Jerusalem claim that Britain has informed Israel that it has warned Syrian President Bashar al-Assad not to store Iraq's WMD in his country or cause an escalation along the Lebanese border with Hizballah's help. The warning was relayed to Bashar al-Assad by a special British emissary several days prior.
—"Israeli Political Sources: UK Warned Syria Not To Hide Iraqi WMD, Heat Up Border," GMP20030320000181 Jerusalem Voice of Israel Network B in Hebrew, 20 March 2003.

April 2003
It is revealed that the United Kingdom exported unspecified "toxic chemical precursors" to Syria in 2000 and 2001 that could be used for the manufacture of chemical weapons despite the existence of tight export controls on such materials.
—Douglas Davis, "UK said to have sold chemical, night vision equipment to Syria," Jerusalem Post, 7 April 2003, p. 7.

April 2003
US Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security John Bolton tells a press conference in Rome, "I think Syria is a good case where I hope that they will conclude that the chemical weapons program...that they have been pursuing are things that they should give up...It is a wonderful opportunity for Syria to forswear the pursuit of weapons of mass destruction..."
—"US tells Iran, Syria, N. Korea 'learn from Iraq'," Reuters, 9 April 2003, <http://www.reuters.com>.

April 2003
The CIA releases its unclassified Biannual Report on WMD Proliferation. It repeats previous assessments that Syria possesses a stockpile of weaponized sarin and is pursuing the development of other more lethal and persistent CW agents.
—Unclassied Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January through 30 June 2002, (Washington, DC: Office of the Director of Central Intelligence, 2003), <http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/pdfs/721report_jan-june2002.pdf>.

April 2003
On behalf of the 22-state Arab League, Syria introduces a draft resolution in the UN Security Council calling for all states in the region to join all three anti-WMD treaties: the NPT, the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), and the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).
—"Syria asks UN to put heat on Israel's nuclear arms," Reuters, 16 April 2003, <http://www.reuters.com>.

May 2003
US Secretary of State Colin Powell visits Damascus and meets with President Assad and Foreign Minister Shara where he discusses US-Syria relations and US concerns regarding Syrian support of terrorism and pursuit of WMD.
—Powell - Syria now knows what US wants, Associated Press, 4 May 2003, <http://www.ap.org>.

May 2003
US President George Bush announces a new effort to combat weapons of mass destruction (WMD), called the Proliferation Security Initiative. The goal is to work with other concerned states to develop new means to disrupt the proliferation trade at sea, in the air, and on land. The initiative reflects the need for a more dynamic, proactive approach to the global proliferation problem. It envisions partnerships of states working in concert, employing their national capabilities to develop a broad range of legal, diplomatic, economic, military and other tools to interdict threatening shipments of WMD- and missile-related equipment and technologies.
—NTI website; "Transcript - Bush Urges NATO Nations to Unite in Fight against Terrorism," 31 May 2003, <http://www.nti.org>.

July 2003
A senior Israeli defense source claims that "at least 100 Syrian long-range ballistic missiles, equipped with VX" are aimed at Israel.
—"Syria's 'nerve gas' missiles," Jane's Foreign Report, 31 July 2003, <http://www.janes.com>.

16 September 2003
US Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security John Bolton gives testimony before Congress in which he names Syria as a dangerous possessor of chemical weapons. Bolton also indicates that the United States is continuing to investigate rumors that Iraq transferred its WMD to Syria prior to the US invasion in March 2003, which he describes as unconfirmed but a cause for concern.
—Bill Gertz, "US Probe focuses on Syria Weapons," Washington Times, 17 September 2003, <http://www.washingtontimes.com>.

October 2003
On 15 October, the US House of Representatives passes the Syria Accountability Act. The bill will enact economic sanctions against Syria if Damascus fails to end its alleged support for terrorism and its suspected efforts to develop weapons of mass destruction. Before becoming law the bill must also be passed by the US Senate and signed by President Bush.
—"US House of Representatives Approves Syria Sanctions Bill," Global Security Newswire, 16 October 2003, <http://www.nti.org>.

	Updated November 2003