Fact Sheet

India Missile Overview

India Missile Overview

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Background

This page is part of the India Country Profile.

India views its nuclear weapons and long-range power projection programs as the key to maintaining strategic stability in the Asia-Pacific region and attaining great-power status. India’s strategic missile programs have matured such that it currently has the capacity to deploy short-, medium-, and long-range ballistic missiles. Four decades of investment in indigenous missile-related design, development, and manufacturing infrastructure, necessary due to India’s non-membership in the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) until 2016, have made the Indian missile sector nearly invulnerable to long-term disruption by export controls.

India has demonstrated its continued commitment to wide-ranging ballistic and cruise missile capabilities with the development of the Agni-V land-based intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), K series sea-based ballistic missile, and BrahMos cruise missile. Recently, Indian defense planners have begun to shift their focus from the development of new missile technologies towards serial production of existing missiles. In a shift from previous self-sufficiency-centered policy, India is increasingly pursuing foreign collaboration, suggesting confidence in its indigenous missile capabilities. 1

Capabilities

Ballistic Missiles

The Prithvi-II, Agni-I, Agni-II, Agni-III, and Agni-IV are India’s fully operational land-based ballistic missiles and form the foundation of the country’s ballistic missile arsenal. 2 In 2018 India conducted three tests of its first indigenous ICBM, the Agni-V. 3

The Prithvi-II and Agni-I are short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs) with ranges of 300 and 700 km respectively. Agni-II, deployed in 2011, has a range of 2000 km and can strike anywhere in Pakistan and most parts of south and southeastern China. Agni-III, with a range of between 3,500 and 5,000 km was deployed in 2014. 4 India has also developed but not yet deployed Agni-IV and Agni-V missiles with range of 3500km and 5200 km respectively. 5

India also has submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) capabilities. The Dhanush SLBM, deployed in 2013, has a range of 400 km. India is developing other SLBMs to equip its planned indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) fleet. The K-15 (Sagarika or B-05) was deployed in 2017 and has a range of 700 km. The K-15 has been successfully tested from the Indian SSBN, INS Arihant. 6 A 3500 km range K-4 SLBM is under development and has been successfully tested multiple times but the latest test in 2017 reportedly failed. 7 Other K family SLBMs, namely K-5 and K-6 with ranges of 5000 km and 6000 km respectively are also rumored to be under development. 8

Cruise Missiles

The BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, a joint Indian-Russian project, is the mainstay of Indian cruise missile capabilities. The BrahMos can travel at speeds up to Mach 3.0, is equipped with advanced satellite navigation, and has a range between 300-500 km. 9 Sea-, air– and submarine-launched variants of BrahMos have also been developed. An improved variant, BrahMos-NG with speeds up to Mach 3.5 is under development as well. 10

In 2014, India successfully tested its first indigenously designed and developed long-range cruise missile, the Nirbhay. 11 The Nirbhay can travel at speeds up to Mach 0.7 and has an operational range of 1,000km. 12

Space Program

India has one of the world’s most advanced space programs. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) launched the first Indian space launch vehicle (SLV) in 1980, and has since become a leader in scientific and commercial spaceflight. ISRO has developed newer and improved SLVs such as Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III). ISRO also frequently contracts with other countries to launch their satellites into orbit. As of November 2019, India had successfully launched 243 domestic and foreign satellites into orbit aboard its PSLV rocket. 13

Missile Defense Systems

Indian missile defense is a double-tiered system. The first tier uses the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD/Pradyumna) and Prithvi Defense Vehicle (PDV) for exo-atmospheric intercepts. The PAD is slated to be replaced by the PDV system because the latter is equipped with an indigenous Imaging Infrared (IIR) seeker that can distinguish between incoming warheads and decoys. 14 The second tier uses the Advanced/Ashvin Air Defense (AAD) for endo-atmospheric intercepts. 15 The AAD system can reach top speeds of up to Mach 4.5. 16 Assistance from Russia, Israel and France has increased the development and capabilities of the AAD. 17 India’s indigenous BMD system can reportedly intercept medium-range ballistic missiles traveling at speeds of Mach 3 to 8. 18 In March 2019 India completed an anti-satellite (ASAT) test using a modified PDV Mark-II, which may become a more integrated part of its missile defense. 19

In addition to development of indigenous missile defense capabilities, India is also looking to augment its ballistic missile defenses by importing radars and other systems from elsewhere. In 2018, India signed an agreement with Russia to buy Russian S-400 Triumf air defense missile system. 20 India is also in talks with the United States to buy the National Advanced Surface to Air Missile System-II to protect its capital, New Delhi. 21 There are also reports that India is trying to develop lasers or Directed energy weapons (DEW) to bolster its missile defense capabilities. Although a successful technology demonstration test for DEWs was conducted in 2018, officials conceded that “The weapon is not ready yet and it will take years for it to happen,” 22

Import and Export Behavior

Russia continues to play a significant role in India’s missile program. Strong defense ties between Russia and India date back to the Cold War and have continued despite the collapse of the Soviet Union. 23 The BrahMos missile program was conceived as a joint venture between the DRDO and Russia’s State Unitary Enterprise NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM) in 1998 and consequently, India successfully tested the land-based variant of BrahMos in 2001. 24 Since then, sea-, air- and submarine-launched variants of BrahMos have also been developed and deployed. The Sagarika SLBM is reported to have received technical assistance from Russia’s NPOM, which also supplied the missile’s guidance hardware. 25

Between 2012-2016, India was consistently the largest importer of major arms in the world with arms imports from USA, Russia, France, Israel, South Korea and other countries. 26 In 2016, the DoD notified the sale of 22 Harpoon anti-ship missiles to India to be fitted on their submarines. 27

India has historically been wary of exporting defense equipment, which it believes indirectly fuels conflicts. 28 However, India’s position seems to be evolving on this issue. In 2017, it signed a deal to supply indigenously developed lightweight torpedoes to Myanmar (Burma). 29 Vietnam is also in talks with India to buy BrahMos anti-ship cruise missile system and surface-to-air Akash missiles. 30

History

1958 to 1970: The Push for Self-Reliance

India’s first missile program began in 1958 – the same year Prime Minister Nehru approved the construction of a plutonium reprocessing plant at Trombay. 31 The project was a modest attempt to construct anti-tank guided missiles. 32 In addition, the missile group examined the development of a liquid fueled sustainer engine – most likely based on the SA-2 from the Soviet Union. 33 Both projects were undertaken by the DRDO and its principal missile laboratory, the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL). The program emphasized gaining scientific expertise and creating a technological base for eventually building modern missiles indigenously. 34 No plans were made in the short-term for the mass production of missile systems. However, the DRDO’s technical and organizational shortcomings, opposition from the armed services, and weak support from politicians and civilian bureaucrats in the federal government resulted in the failure and ultimate termination of both projects. 35

India received the French Centaure research rocket in May 1964 and began reproducing it with modifications. 36 Indian engineers therefore had 20 years of rocket experience, including satellite launches and recovery, before the country commenced a dedicated missile program in 1985.

1971 to 1980: Technological Setbacks

Two major programs occupied Indian missile efforts in the 1970s – Project Devil and Project Valiant. Project Valiant explored the development of a long-range ballistic missile with a range approaching 8,000 km but for technological and bureaucratic reasons, leading officials in the DRDO were unenthusiastic about the project and cited a crippling shortage of the scientific and engineering expertise needed to complete such an ambitious project. 37 38 After technical problems with the missile’s engine proved too great to overcome, the project was shelved in 1974. 39 In 1972, work began on Project Devil, an attempt to “acquire detailed knowledge” of an operational missile by reverse-engineering the Soviet-designed SA-2 surface-to-air missile (SAM). 40 The SA-2 was powered by a liquid fueled sustainer engine and a solid fueled booster; Project Devil engineers hoped to be able to produce it indigenously by the end of the decade. 41 The project suffered monumental technological and capacity setbacks but fulfilled the core components of its mission: “two solid-fuel boosters and a three-ton liquid sustainer engine” emerged from the effort, which would later serve as the platform for the Prithvi missile series. 42 Nevertheless, the project failed to replicate the SA-2, and funding for the project ended in 1980. 43

Similar to India’s “peaceful nuclear explosion” in 1974, these projects appear to have been a function of the political leadership’s desire to demonstrate the country’s technological prowess and project India as a great power, rather than an initiative to meet a pressing security concern. The armed forces’ indifference to Project Devil and Valiant indicate that political rather than strictly national security considerations were behind missile development in the 1970s. 44

The first successful launch of an Indian SLV came in 1980, after more than fifteen years of research and development. After the launch, the head of India’s Space Sciences Technology Center (SSTC) noted that “India can now walk on two legs” (i.e., that India had a delivery system for its nuclear warheads). 45

1981 to 2010: Emergence of a Full-Fledged Missile Program

India began making its first substantive achievements in missile development after Indira Gandhi, a proponent of nuclear weapons, returned to power in 1980. In 1982 a committee was formed which studied various options for missile development and a year later, the committee unveiled the framework for the Integrated Guided Missile Program (IGMDP). The IGMDP was the organizational vehicle by which the DRDO engineered India’s modern missile systems. 46 Along with the Trishul short-range surface-to-air missile, the Akash long-range surface-to-air missile, and the Nag anti-tank missile – of immediate interest to the armed forces in the early 1980s – the IGMDP produced the Prithvi and Agni missile series. 47

Unlike the Indian missile projects in the 1970s, the IGMDP enjoyed consistent political and financial support throughout the 1980s and 1990s. 48 Amidst technology-denial sanctions imposed by the international community after India’s 1974 nuclear test, political leaders and civilian bureaucrats pushed for increased research in dual-use civilian technologies such as the SLV. 49 New Delhi sponsored, for example, the development of the SLV-3, the motor of which was considered by some to be the first Agni “technology demonstrator.” 50

The simultaneous development of the Prithvi and Agni missile series emerged from a debate amongst DRDO officials in the early 1980s about whether to pursue liquid- or solid-fueled missiles. 51 Solid-fuel proponents argued that the simple design features and easy maintenance of solid-fuel engines outweighed the limited technological flexibility of liquid-fueled designs. 52 Prior experience with liquid-fueled motors in the 1970s under Project Devil and Project Valiant eventually led officials to pursue the liquid-fuel option for the Prithvi series, but they chose to use solid-fuel engines for the Agni series. 53

Prithvi-I provided India with a rudimentary short-range (150 km) option for deploying a limited nuclear strike capability against Pakistan. 54 By 1994, two successful flight-tests of the 1,400 km-range Agni-1 missile confirmed India’s re-entry vehicle technology and demonstrated mastery of staging. 55 The Agni program thus served as the foundation for the design and development of longer-range ballistic missile systems, while the Prithvi remained the country’s lone operational strategic missile. 56

The latter half of the 1990s and early 2000s were characterized by continued technological development of the Prithvi and Agni ballistic missiles, and pursuit of more sophisticated missile delivery options. 57 The DRDO embarked on programs to develop longer-range versions of the Agni: Agni-II (3000 km) and Agni-III (5000 km), and Prithvi: Prithvi-II (350 km) and Prithvi-III (600 km). In 2001, India successfully tested its first supersonic cruise missile, called BrahMos which was developed with Russian collaboration.

India’s ballistic missile defense got a boost in 2006 when the first tier in India’s ballistic missile defense system, PAD/Pradyumna was tested. PAD was tested with a maximum interception altitude of 80 km and is designed to neutralize missiles within a range of 300-2000 km up to a speed of Mach 5.0. In 2007, the second tier called the Advanced Air Defense (AAD) was tested. In 2008, DRDO also began developing a sea-launched ballistic missile, the Sagarika, which was tested from submersible pontoons. 58

India and Israel also signed an agreement to jointly develop the Barak-8 surface to air missile (previously known as LR-SAM and MR-SAM) that is designed to defend against airborne threats such as aircraft, helicopters, anti-ship missiles, and UAVs. Sea- and land-based versions of the system exist. The first successful test of the sea-based version was conducted in 2010. 59

2011 to the Present: Improvements in Missile Technology and MTCR Membership

In 2012, India for the first time successfully tested the Dhanush missile. It is a variant of the surface-to-surface or ship-to-ship Prithvi-3 missile and has been developed for the Indian Navy. It has a range of 350 km and is capable of carrying both conventional as well as nuclear warheads. 60

In July 2013, India announced it would begin withdrawing the 17-year-old Prithvi-I and replacing it with the 150 km solid-fueled, road-mobile Prahar missile, which was first tested in 2011. The Prahar is smaller, more maneuverable, and faster to launch than the Prithvi-I. It has a maximum payload of 200 kg and is capable of carrying only conventional or tactical nuclear weapons. The timeline for the switchover from the Prithvi-I to the Prahar has not been announced. 61

The Agni ballistic missile family has also undergone significant recent improvements in range and sophistication. Agni-III, with a range of over 3,200 km was inducted into the armed forces in 2011 after a series of successful tests and user trials. 62 India also successfully fight tested the Agni-IV, with declared range of 4000 km multiple times since 2011 before inducting it into the armed forces in 2014. 63

The long-anticipated Agni-V has also been successfully tested multiple times since 2012. 64 While its tested range of 5000 km falls short of ICBM status, the missile’s range can be increased with relatively minor technological adjustments; experts therefore consider the Agni-5 to be an ICBM. 65 Even with a range of only 5,000 km, the Agni-V could hit any target in China, including Beijing. The Agni-V is also rumored to be equipped with MIRV technology. 66 However, Agni-V will need to be tested multiple times before it can be operationally deployed with the Indian armed forces. 67

The development of the indigenous Nirbhay long-range cruise missile has been hailed as a hallmark moment in India’s missile development. 68 Nirbhay is a long range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile designed and developed by DRDO and is capable of carrying conventional and nuclear warheads. It is currently under development and undergoing flight trials.

As a member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), Russia could not jointly develop any missile beyond the 300 km range with a non-MTCR member. However, with India’s acceptance into the MTCR in 2016, those restrictions are no longer valid. Consequently, India and Russia announced that they will develop an extended range version of BrahMos cruise missile. 69 70 In 2017, a longer-range version of BrahMos, called the BrahMos-ER, with reported range of about 800 km was successfully tested. 71 72

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Glossary

Deployment
The positioning of military forces – conventional and/or nuclear – in conjunction with military planning.
Ballistic missile
A delivery vehicle powered by a liquid or solid fueled rocket that primarily travels in a ballistic (free-fall) trajectory.  The flight of a ballistic missile includes three phases: 1) boost phase, where the rocket generates thrust to launch the missile into flight; 2) midcourse phase, where the missile coasts in an arc under the influence of gravity; and 3) terminal phase, in which the missile descends towards its target.  Ballistic missiles can be characterized by three key parameters - range, payload, and Circular Error Probable (CEP), or targeting precision.  Ballistic missiles are primarily intended for use against ground targets.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
The MTCR: An informal arrangement established in April 1987 by an association of supplier states concerned about the proliferation of missile equipment and technology relevant to missiles that are capable of carrying a payload over 500 kilograms over a 300-kilometer range. Though originally intended to restrict the proliferation of nuclear-capable missiles, the regime has been expanded to restrict the spread of unmanned aerial vehicles. For additional information, see the MTCR.
Export control
National laws or international arrangements established to restrict the sale of certain goods to certain countries, or to ensure that safeguards or end-use guarantees are applied to the export and sale of sensitive and dual-use technologies and materials. See entry for Dual-use
Cruise missile
An unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. There are subsonic and supersonic cruise missiles currently deployed in conventional and nuclear arsenals, while conventional hypersonic cruise missiles are currently in development. These can be launched from the air, submarines, or the ground. Although they carry smaller payloads, travel at slower speeds, and cover lesser ranges than ballistic missiles, cruise missiles can be programmed to travel along customized flight paths and to evade missile defense systems.
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): A ballistic missile with a range greater than 5,500 km. See entry for ballistic missile.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
SLBM: A ballistic missile that is carried on and launched from a submarine.
SSBN
Ship, Submersible, Ballistic, Nuclear: A hull classification for a submarine capable of launching a ballistic missile. The "N", or nuclear, refers to the ship's propulsion system. SSBN's are generally reserved for strategic vessels, as most submarine launched ballistic missiles carry nuclear payloads. A non-strategic vessel carries the designation SSN, or attack submarine.
Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM)
A missile designed to be launched from an aircraft and jet-engine powered throughout its flight. As with all cruise missiles, its range is a function of payload, propulsion, and fuel volume, and can thus vary greatly. Under the START I Treaty, the term "long-range ALCM" means an air-launched cruise missile with a range in excess of 600 kilometers.
Space Launch Vehicle (SLV)
A rocket used to carry a payload, such as a satellite, from Earth into outer space. SLVs are of proliferation concern because their development requires a sophisticated understanding of the same technologies used in the development of long-range ballistic missiles. Some states (e.g., Iran), may have developed space launch vehicle programs in order to augment their ballistic missile capabilities.
Anti-Satellite Weapon (ASAT)
Anti-Satellite Weapon (ASAT): A system designed to destroy or disable enemy satellites in orbit.
Reprocessing
Reprocessing: The chemical treatment of spent nuclear fuel to separate the remaining usable plutonium and uranium for re-fabrication into fuel, or alternatively, to extract the plutonium for use in nuclear weapons.
Sanctions
Punitive measures, for example economic in nature, implemented in response to a state's violation of its international obligations.
Dual-use item
An item that has both civilian and military applications. For example, many of the precursor chemicals used in the manufacture of chemical weapons have legitimate civilian industrial uses, such as the production of pesticides or ink for ballpoint pens.
Reentry Vehicle (RV)
A nuclear warhead on a ballistic missile specially designed to reenter the earth's atmosphere in the terminal portion of the missile's trajectory.
Tactical nuclear weapons
Short-range nuclear weapons, such as artillery shells, bombs, and short-range missiles, deployed for use in battlefield operations.
Multiple Independently-targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV)
An offensive ballistic missile system with multiple warheads, each of which can strike a separate target and can be launched by a single booster rocket.

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  72. News, “BRAHMOS Extended Range (ER) missile successfully test-fired,” BrahMos Aerospace, 11 March 2017, www.brahmos.com.

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