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Russia Missile Overview

Great emblem of Strategic Rocket Forces of Russia (Src. Wikimedia Commons)

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Russia Missile Overview

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Background

This page is part of the Russia Country Profile.

Russia, alongside the United States, has one of the world’s two largest and most advanced ballistic missile programs.

Russia inherited its program from the Former Soviet Union, which successfully launched the world’s first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), the R-7, in 1957, and expended considerable resources on its missile program as part of the bilateral Cold War arms race. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia inherited the majority of the former Soviet Union’s missile development and production infrastructure and arsenal. Despite facing financial troubles in the 1990s, the Russian Federation was able to commit the needed resources to maintain the arsenal.

Today the Ministry of Defense is undergoing a period of across the board defense modernization, which includes both modernization and replacement of various missile systems. Russia participates in numerous international efforts to limit missile proliferation, including the Missile Technology Control Regime and the Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missiles. At the bilateral level, Russia and the United States concluded the New START Treaty, limiting each country to 1,550 nuclear warheads on 700 deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBM), and strategic bombers. 1

Capabilities

Strategic Rocket Forces

Russia currently deploys five ICBM platforms, three of which were developed during the Soviet period, and two of which have been developed by the Russian Federation. The Soviet-era systems are: the R-36M2 (NATO SS-18 ‘Satan’), the UR-100N (NATO: SS-19 ‘Stiletto’), and the RT-2PM (NATO: SS-25 ‘Sickle’). 2 The newer systems developed in the Russian Federation are: the RT-2PM2 Topol-M (NATO: SS-27 ‘Sickle B’) and the RS-24 Yars (NATO: SS-29)

Russia deploys 52 R-36M2 missiles, tipped with ten warheads each, in silos at Dombarovsky, Orenburb Oblast and Uzhur, Krasnoyarsk Krai. 3 The R-36M2’s service life has been extended far beyond its intended service life of 15 years several times, and the Commander of the Strategic Rocket Forces (RVSN), Lt. General Sergey Karakayev, has stated that the service life could be extended to 33 years to enable the missile to remain in service until 2022. 4 Russia possesses 40 operational UR-100N missiles armed with 6 warheads each, deployed at Tatishchevo, Saratov Oblast. 5 The UR-100N is the oldest ICBM in the Russian arsenal, and it is expected to remain in service until 2019. Because of its age, Russia tested the UR-100N multiple times between 2006 and 2011 to prove its stability in order to extend its service life up to thirty-three years. 6 The RT-2PM Topol was the world’s first road mobile ICBM. Approximately 150 of the single warhead missile are deployed at Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El Republic; Nizhnii Tagil, Sverdlovsk Oblast; Novosibirsk, Novosibirsk Oblast; Irkutsk, Irkutsk Oblast; Barnaul, Altai; and Bologoyev, Tver Oblast. 7 Lt. General Karakayev stated that the missile may stay in service until 2019. 8

Although Russia continues to extend the service life of its Soviet legacy ICBMs, Lt-General Karakayev has stated that by 2016 the missiles will constitute only 40% of the Russian ICBM arsenal, and that by 2021 98% of the Soviet missiles will be retired. 9 Russia has deployed 78 of the single warhead Topol-M missiles in both silos and road-mobile launchers, 60 in silos at Tatishchevo, Saratov Oblast, and 18 road-mobile missiles at Teykovo, Ivanova Oblast. 10 Russia is no longer producing new Topol-M missiles, and all new road mobile ICBMs will be the RS-24. An update of the Topol-M, the 4 warhead RS-24 Yars is the world’s first road mobile ICBM with MIRVs, and Russia began deploying it in 2013. Russia has deployed 33 RS-24 missiles at Teykovo, Novosibirsk and Nizhniy Tagil.

As Russia retires Soviet-era heavy ICBMs with many warheads and replaces them with smaller solid fueled missiles with fewer warheads, its total number of deployed warheads has decreased. To reverse this trend, a new silo-based, liquid-fueled heavy ICBM called Sarmat is being developed and will begin to replace the R-36M2 between 2018 and 2020. 11 In addition, Russia continues to develop and improve its road mobile and silo-based solid fueled ICBMs under the names Yars-M and Rubezh. 12

Strategic Fleet

Russia deploys three types of submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs): the R-29R (NATO: SS-N-18 ‘Stingray’), the R-29RM Sineva (NATO: SS-N-23 ‘Skiff’), and the R-30 Bulava (NATO: SS-NX-32). The R-29R and R-29RM are Soviet legacy SLBMs carried aboard Soviet-era submarines, and the R-30 is a new SLBM developed for the new Russian Project 955 Borei class ballistic missile submarine (SSBN).

The three warhead R-29R is deployed aboard Project 667BDR Kalmar class submarines (NATO: Delta III). Russia currently deploys three Kalmar class submarines with the Pacific Fleet based at Vilyuchink, Kamchatka. 13 Each submarine carries sixteen missiles, for a total of 48 warheads. Kalmar class submarines, and their R-29R SLBM, have exceeded their planned service life and are expected to be withdrawn from service as new Borei class submarines and R-30 missiles enter into service. Russia deploys the R-29RM SLBM on Project 667BDRM Delfin class (NATO: Delta IV) submarines with the Northern Fleet at Gadzhiyevo, Murmansk Oblast. 14 Each ship carries sixteen missiles with four warheads apiece for a total of 64 warheads per ship. Three Delfin class submarines are in active service, with three undergoing overhaul. 15 As part of the overhaul, Russia restarted production of the R-29RM, producing a new ten warhead variant designated the R-29RMU2.1 Liner. 16 Overhaul of the last ship is expected by 2015, and will extend each ship’s service life by ten years. All Delfin class submarines are expected to be retired between 2019 and 2025. 17

The R-30 is the first Russian SLBM developed in the post-Cold War era for deployment on the new Project 955 Borei class submarines. The first two Borei class ships, Yuri Dolgoruki and Alexander Nevsky, were commissioned in 2013, and will enter service in early 2014. The submarines’ entry into service was delayed after a series of failed tests of the Bulava missile. As of January 2014, the third ship of the class, Vladimir Monomakh, is awaiting manufacturer’s acceptance trials before commissioning into the Russian Navy. 18 Russia plans to deploy a total of eight Borei class submarines. 19 The first three Borei submarines carry sixteen Bulava missiles, each with six warheads. 20 The final five Borei submarines will be designated Project 955A, and will carry twenty R-30 missiles each. 21

In addition to its land based ICBMs and SLBMs, Russia deploys numerous ballistic missiles with conventional warheads.

Cruise Missiles

The Kh-55 (X-55; NATO: AS-15 Kent) is Russia’s primary nuclear cruise missile. Russia deploys the air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) on two bombers, the Tu-160 (NATO: Blackjack) and the Tu-95MS (NATO: Bear-H). Russia operates thirteen Tu-160 bombers, each equipped with up to twelve Kh-55SM (NATO: AS-15B ‘Kent-B’) cruise missiles. 22 The Air Force deploys two regiments of Tu-160 bombers at Engels, Saratova Oblast. 23 Fifty-five Tu-95MS bombers are deployed at Ukrainka, Amur Oblast. 24 Each Tu-95 can carry sixteen Kh-55 (NATO: AS-15A ‘Kent’) cruise missiles. Russia is developing a replacement for the Kh-55, the Kh-102. 25

History

1945 to 1957: World War II to Sputnik

In July 1944 Soviet authorities released Sergei Korolev, a former chief of the Jet Propulsion Research Group (GIRD) in charge of aircraft development, from a GULAG prison camp. Korolev was put in charge of a team of engineers and tasked with designing a missile equivalent to the German A-4 (V-2). When World War II ended, Soviet troops moved across Germany to recover A-4 parts, components, and production equipment. In addition to missile parts, the Soviets acquired and restarted production at a liquid oxygen plant. The original Soviet plan called for rebuilding the A-4 in Germany. The Soviets occupied the Mittelwerk missile factory in Norhausen, and with salvaged technical documents and hundreds of German scientists, including Helmut Gottrup, a guidance specialist, and Kurt Magnus, a gyroscope specialist, went to work building the A-4. 26

In May 1946 Soviet authorities issued a decree, “Questions of Rocket Propelled Armaments,” officially recognizing the work at Norhausen and calling for Soviet reproduction of the missile and establishment of a testing range in the USSR. The new range was established at Kapustin Yar in the Kazkah Soviet Socialist Republic, and in 1947 Korolev and his team moved to the new testing ground to launch the A-4. After eleven launches, with only three successes, in September 1948 the USSR launched the first A-4 manufactured and produced with all Soviet components in Soviet factories. The new missile was renamed the R-1 (NATO: SS-1 ‘Scunner’), and was accepted into military service in 1951. 27

Following the successful test of an atomic bomb in 1949, the USSR sought to develop a miniaturized nuclear weapon and a longer-range ballistic missile delivery system. The R-5 (NATO: SS-3 ‘Shyster’), with a range of 1,200km and the capability of carrying a 1.5 ton nuclear warhead, entered into service in 1956. The next step in the Soviet missile program was to develop an ICBM. The R-7 Semyorka (NATO: SS-6 ‘Sapwood’), utilized staging in the form of strap-on boosters for the first time. The strap-on boosters allowed for the extra thrust necessary to lift the rocket to ICBM ranges. The R-7 became the world’s first ICBM after a successful test launch on 21 August 1957. On 4 October the Soviet Union used the R-7 to launch Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite, into orbit.

1957 to 1969: Nuclear Arms Race and the Beginning of Arms Control

In the United States, following the launch of a Soviet ICBM and satellite into space, the Gaither Committee, tasked with evaluating civil defense in case of a nuclear attack, asserted that the Soviet Union could have a significant ICBM capability by the end of the decade. Alongside Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev’s announcement that the USSR was producing “ICBMs like sausages,” this produced a widespread belief in the existence of a missile gap between the USSR and the United States. The United States responded by increasing its efforts to deploy new missiles to counter the perceived gap.

In the early 1960s the United States deployed Thor IRBMs in the United Kingdom and Jupiter medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBM) in Italy and Turkey. In response to the U.S. deployments, the USSR planned to deploy missiles to Cuba. Operation Anadyr called for three regiments of R-12 missiles (32 missiles total); two regiments of the R-14 (16 missiles); seven Project 629 (NATO: Golf) submarines with three R-13 SLBMs each; and one IL-28 bomber with nuclear cruise missiles. 28 In October 1962, the USSR deployed three R-12s with 24 missiles to Cuba, setting the Cuban Missile Crisis in motion. 29 After the R-12 missiles were spotted by U.S. Corona satellites, a blockade of the island was put into place. The R-14 missiles were cut off by the blockade and never reached the island. 30 Thirteen days after the crisis began Khrushchev agreed to remove all missiles from Cuba in exchange for the removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Inside the Soviet Politburo, the Cuban Missile Crisis solidified the role of strategic weapons, and especially ballistic missiles, as nuclear delivery systems. The crisis showed the Soviet elite that strategic missiles could and would play a central role in any conflict between the two superpowers. Events therefore solidified the role of the Strategic Rocket Forces (RVSN), established in 1957, as a distinct branch of the military in charge of strategic missiles. The crisis also precipitated Khrushchev’s 1964 removal from power, and Leonid Brezhnev became the General Secretary of the USSR. Under a policy of parity or superiority, Brezhnev increased defense spending, including for more advanced ICBM systems, so that the USSR would not require forward deployed missiles. 31

The USSR simultaneously pursued five different missile programs in the 1960s, including a light ICBM, a heavy ICBM, a super-heavy ICBM, new SLBMs, and a space based “fractional orbital bomb system (FOBS).” 32 By the end of the decade, the Soviet Union had eight different ICBM systems comprising over 1,000 total launchers deployed across the USSR in hardened silos, and over 200 SLBMs deployed at sea. 33 While the Soviet Union lagged behind the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR had achieved missile parity with the United States by 1970. In addition to ICBMs, the Soviet Union developed new short-range ballistic missiles (SRBM). In 1964 the R-17 Elbrus (NATO: SS-1 ‘Scud-B’) entered into service. In 1965 an extended version of the R-17M Elbrus-M (NATO: SS-1D ‘Scud-C’), was produced. Over the next fifteen years the Scud-B/C would be exported to numerous countries, including Egypt, North Korea, and Iraq. Today, the Scud-B and Scud C are the most proliferated missiles in the world.

In 1963, the USSR and the United States signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) banning nuclear weapons and nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater. Seven days after the signing of the PTBT, the UN General Assembly accepted resolutions from the United States and the Soviet Union calling for a ban on weapons in space. Advances in rocketry and space technology had opened up the possibility of deploying nuclear weapons in space; however, advances in satellite technology, ranging from communications to image intelligence, and the promise of manned space exploration, offered competing uses of space. The weaponization of space would likely lead to long-lasting debris fields in space, and this debris would inhibit the use of space indefinitely for civilian and intelligence support. To preserve space and the benefits that satellite technology offered, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Outer Space Treaty (OST) in January 1967, prohibiting placement of WMD in space, in orbit, or on celestial bodies, including the moon. 34 The treaty furthered reserved space “for all mankind,” and assured that astronauts would be treated as envoys of all mankind. 35

1969 to 1991: Cooperative Restraint and Arms Control

From 1969 on, the United States and the Soviet Union negotiated a number of arms treaties first capping, and later reducing, the number of deployed ICBMs/SLBMs and nuclear warheads. Since the first arms control treaty, the counting of delivery systems has been the primary means of limiting and reducing strategic arsenals.

Between November 1969 and May 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union met to discuss limiting strategic offensive and defensive weapons systems in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT-1). Asymmetries in the U.S. and Soviet arsenals at the time complicated negotiations. In 1972, the USSR deployed approximately 300 more ICBMs/SLBMs than the United States; however, the United States, with MIRV’ed missiles, had double the warheads of the Soviet Union. 36 The Soviet Union countered these warhead asymmetries by producing missiles with higher throw weights capable of carrying larger payloads. By 1970, each country had robust missile arsenals deployed across its territory and on submarines throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Given the high ballistic missile saturation, both sides began developing anti-ballistic missile defense (ABM) systems.

SALT-I talks resulted in two agreements in 1972, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty), and the Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms. The ABM Treaty limited each country to fielding two fixed, ground based ABM systems, one around each country’s capital, and one around a non-specific ICBM silo base. 37 The Interim Agreement capped the number of ICBMs and SLBMs on both sides at their levels as of 1 July 1972. The inequality in missile and warhead numbers and capabilities posed problems for both governments, and the Interim Agreement was seen as a stepping stone that each country agreed to abide by until a more comprehensive agreement could be reached.

The United States and the Soviet Union signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II (SALT II) treaty in June 1979, which addressed strategic nuclear delivery systems by capping the number of ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers, and limiting the permissible number of MIRV’ed vehicles. The United States never ratified the treaty due to the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; however, each country agreed to abide by the treaty’s limits nevertheless.

In the mid-1970s, the Soviet Union developed and deployed the RSD-10 “Pioneer” (NATO: SS-20 Saber and SS-28 Saber II), a road mobile nuclear IRBM. The missile significantly upgraded the USSR’s ability to strike Western European and NATO targets. NATO immediately responded with a “two track” program to negotiate with the Soviets to eliminate such weapons, while simultaneously developing its own intermediate range capability should negotiations fail. 38

Negotiations began in 1980, but ceased in 1983 when NATO deployed Pershing II IRBMs and Tomahawk ground launch cruise missile (GLCM) in Europe. Talks resumed in January 1985, with both sides signing the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in December 1987. The treaty eliminated all ground based short and intermediate range missiles worldwide (ranges of 500-5,500km), and entered into force on 1 June 1988. 39

Although the INF Treaty eliminated an entire class of weapons, the U.S. and the USSR continued to deploy ICBMs and SLBMs in large numbers throughout the Cold War. With its signature in July 1991, the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) placed limits on the number of missile launchers and warheads.

1991 to 2000: Dissolution of the Soviet Union and Legacy Challenges

On 25 December 1991 Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev announced the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The breakup had a profound effect on the Soviet/Russian military. Nearly 24% of ICBM launchers were now stationed outside of Russia in the various independent republics. 40 Russia and the United States moved quickly to denuclearize the republics; however, many missiles remained in these countries. In addition, many in the Soviet military, including in the RVSN, pledged allegiance to their new countries, resulting in a drastic loss of military manpower. 41 From 1991 to 1999 Russia worked to remove missiles and related technologies from the newly independent republics. All missiles were removed from Kazakhstan and Belarus, and all silos destroyed by 1996. Ukraine declared that all missiles on its territory belonged to Ukraine and would subsequently be destroyed, with the single exception of 32 completed, but not yet deployed, UR-100N missiles, which Russia purchased from Ukraine. 42 The last missile silo in Ukraine was demilitarized in 1991 and destroyed in 2001. Between FY1993 and FY2013 the United States provided over $1.7 billion to Russia though Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) programs for Strategic Offensive Arms Elimination (SOAE). 43

In addition to missiles and personnel, approximately 75% of the infrastructure necessary for missile production was located outside of Russia. 44 With the loss of infrastructure and drastically reduced budget, Russia was unable to maintain missile production rates, and was forced into a policy of missile maintenance. This proved problematic, as the same factories needed for new missile production were also necessary for missile maintenance. Lacking the ability to produce new missiles in significant numbers, by 1998 Russia had doubled over half of its ICBMs’ service lives. 45

In 1993 President Boris Yeltsin issued a series of decrees in an attempt to offset force disintegration and ensure the Russia deterrent. Yeltsin’s decrees called for the development of a new ICBM, the Topol-M; a new SLBM, the RS-30 Bulava; and eight new Borei class submarines. 46 Although Yeltsin initiated the above programs, they did not develop fully until the 2000s.

START-I was signed in September 1991 and entered into force in 1994. Russia was able to meet the treaty limits in part by eliminating missiles located outside of Russia following the collapse of the USSR. Negotiations on START-II and later START-III occurred throughout the 1990s; however, neither treaty entered into force.

The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in a chaotic environment in Russia that included the loss of government control and the rise of organized crime. The almost anarchic environment and lack of proper oversight led to Russian agencies, institutions, and individuals exporting missile components and technologies to countries around the world. The extent to which Russian entities aided rocket and missile programs is unknown; however, reports cite Russian entities as having aided programs in India, China, Brazil, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, and Iran. 47 In 1995 Russia joined the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), a voluntary agreement designed to limit the export of missile systems and critical technologies. Despite signing the MTCR, concerns persist that Russian entities aided the export and spread of missile technologies throughout the late 1990s.

2000 to 2011: Putin, the Reemergence of Russia and Military Modernization

In 2000, Vladimir Putin came to power in Russia, and by 2005 had succeeded in centralizing control and stabilizing the economy. Putin attempted to initiate a series of military reforms, but was unable to gain support for these reforms until after the 2008 war with Georgia. In 2010 Moscow stated that it would spend 20 trillion rubles on military modernization over the next ten years. 48 The modernization plan includes a continuation of Yeltsin-era modifications, especially the development and deployment of eight Borei class submarines, the R-30 Bulava SLBM, and the Kh-102 LACM. In addition, plans are underway for a new medium weight ICBM by 2015, and a new heavy launch ICBM capable of carrying 10-15 warheads between 2018 and 2020. The Topol-M and RS-24 Yars currently meet the requirements for the medium and road-mobile ICBMs.

Initially the first Borei class submarine, the Yuri Dolgoruki, was to enter service in 2001; however, its ballistic missile failed in all three of its initial flight tests, causing cancellation of the missile program. The R-30 Bulava was designed to replace the previous missile as the SLBM for all Borei class submarines. The first Bulava test occurred in 2004 and ended in failure. In total, eight of the first twelve tests failed, leading Russia to once again reexamine the program. In 2009 an inspection found that poor quality control in component manufacturing had resulted in the failures. The problems were addressed, and in 2010 seven successful flights were conducted. In 2011, the Bulava was tested from the Yuri Dolgoruki for the first time. Following its successful launch, the missile entered into serial production. The keels for the next two submarines, the Alexander Nevsky and the Vladimir Monomakh, were laid in 2004 and 2006.

In 2002, Russia signed the Hague Code of Conduct Against the Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCOC). The HCOC strengthens the MTCR by establishing binding commitments to stem the proliferation of ballistic missiles. In January 2008, Russia suspended implementation of the pre-launch notices required by the HCOC. 49 Moscow stated that current members were not issuing pre-launch notifications, and therefore Russia would not either. 50 The United States does not submit pre-launch notifications through the HCOC. However, the United States and Russia supply each other with pre-launch notification through bilateral channels, including the Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers. 51

In December 2001, the U.S. formally withdrew from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABM) Treaty. The ABM Treaty had an “unlimited duration,” but allowed for either party to withdraw if “extraordinary events” jeopardized national security. The U.S. cited the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and worldwide missile proliferation as detrimental to U.S. security. In December 2002, U.S. President George W. Bush announced a missile defense plan that included ground and sea-based ABM systems. President Putin stated that U.S. missile defense would not pose a threat to Russia; however, he changed his stance when in 2006 the U.S. Missile Defense Agency (MDA) conducted a study examining potential sites in Poland and the Czech Republic.

In 2008, on the eve of the G-8 Summit in Moscow, Putin stated that Russia would retaliate against the stationing of missile defense components in Central and Eastern Europe by targeting European cities with Russian missiles. Putin recommended that the United States instead station radar sites in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iraq, or at sea. Following the election and President Obama’s inauguration in 2009, the U.S. scrapped the Bush plan for Obama’s new European Phased Adaptive Approach (PAA), which did not include plans for radars or missile defense components in Poland or the Czech Republic. Declared plans for U.S. missile defense in Europe do not mention a threat from Russia. Instead they are intended to protect NATO from a limited IRBM or ICBM attack from a rogue state. Current U.S. plans for European PAA involve stationing U.S. Aegis-capable warships with missile interceptors in the Mediterranean Sea and building a missile defense site in Romania. 52 Additionally, the United States has stationed Ground-based Midcourse Defense Missile Interceptors in Alaska and California to counter limited missile threats to the West Coast. 53

In April 2010, Russia and the United States signed the New START Treaty as a replacement to SORT. New START which entered force in February 2011, returned to the previous arms control standard of focusing on the number of allowable ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers in each arsenal, while also limiting the number of deployed warheads for all strategic systems. Russia was already below the treaty limits of 700 missiles and bombers and 1,550 warheads, and does not have to reduce its arsenal to adhere to the treaty. According to the October 2013 New START data exchange, Russia has 473 deployed delivery systems and 1400 deployed warheads. In addition, the treaty preamble recognized the interrelationship between offensive and defensive missiles; however, it did not place missile defense obligations on either country. Russia has stated that its interpretation of the agreement leaves open the possibility to withdraw from the treaty should the U.S. increase its missile defense capabilities in a way that threatens Russian national security.

Recent Developments and Current Status


In 2012 the Russian Navy announced that strategic nuclear submarines would resume constant patrolling of the world’s oceans. In 1984, the USSR conducted more than 230 submarine patrols, continuously having a nuclear-armed submarine in international waters. 54 In 2008 Russia conducted ten limited patrols, the highest number since the collapse of the USSR. 55

The Yuri Dolgoruki, the lead ship of the Borei-class ballistic missile submarines was commissioned into the Russian Navy in January 2013, and the second of the class, Alexander Nevsky, was commissioned in December 2013. 56 Both ships were significantly delayed due to testing failures and production difficulties associated with their Buluva missiles. The next ship of the Borei-class, Vladimir Monomakh, has been completed and is awaiting sea trials. 57 The next five ships of the Borei class, including the fourth ship the Knyaz Vladimir, will be structurally different from the first three, and will subsequently be designated the Project 955A or Borei-A class submarines. Construction on Knyaz Vladimir began in July 2012, and work on the next two ships of the class did not begin as planned in mid-2013. 58

In April 2013, a Russian defense official said that Russia was in the developmental stages of producing a new railway-based ICBM. 59 A railway system would use existing rail-lines to transport ICBMs across the country. The Soviet Union deployed a rail-based system during the Cold War, but the system was disassembled between 2005 and 2007. 60

In July 2013, Russia announced that it plans to increase its cruise missile arsenal by a factor of 30 by the year 2020. Moreover, it took steps to move cruise missile production entirely inside its borders, awarding Russian-owned NPO Saturn a three-year contract for cruise missile engine manufacture. Previously, engines had been manufactured by a Ukrainian-owned company. 61

In July 2014, the U.S. government determined Russia had tested a ground-launched cruise missile (GLCM) in violation of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, which obligates the United States and Russia “not to possess, produce, or flight-test” missiles with maximum ranges between 500 and 5500 km. 62 Russia reportedly began testing the prohibited GLCM, referred to as the R-500, in 2008, leading Washington to raise the issue with Moscow directly in May 2013. 63 Unsatisfied with Moscow’s response, Rose Gottemoeller, Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security, briefed NATO allies on U.S. concerns regarding Russian compliance in January 2014. 64 Six months later the U.S. State Department released its annual Compliance Report, marking the official determination in the public domain of Russian non-compliance with the INF. 65

The report did not mention a second missile, the RS-26 Rubezh ballistic missile, which has also raised concerns within Washington and NATO. Russia tested the RS-26 beyond INF-prohibited ranges in May 2012, qualifying the missile as an ICBM counted under New START and therefore not subject to the INF. 66 However, Russia has also flight-tested the RS-26 to ranges within those proscribed by the INF, making it very similar to the SS-20 Saber (or RDS-10 Pioneer), which precipitated INF negotiations in the 1980s. 67 For this reason, many experts and officials refer to the RS-26 as a “circumvention” rather than a violation of the treaty. 68

While Washington and Moscow met to discuss the issue on September 11, 2014, the matter remains unresolved. According to the U.S. State Department, “Although the U.S. concerns were not assuaged in this meeting, the parties had a useful exchange of views. They agreed to continue the dialogue.” 69 As such, the impact of Russia’s development of these two systems and the outcome of the U.S. determination of an INF treaty violation remains to be seen.

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Glossary

Ballistic missile
A delivery vehicle powered by a liquid or solid fueled rocket that primarily travels in a ballistic (free-fall) trajectory.  The flight of a ballistic missile includes three phases: 1) boost phase, where the rocket generates thrust to launch the missile into flight; 2) midcourse phase, where the missile coasts in an arc under the influence of gravity; and 3) terminal phase, in which the missile descends towards its target.  Ballistic missiles can be characterized by three key parameters - range, payload, and Circular Error Probable (CEP), or targeting precision.  Ballistic missiles are primarily intended for use against ground targets.
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): A ballistic missile with a range greater than 5,500 km. See entry for ballistic missile.
Bilateral
Bilateral: Negotiations, arrangements, agreements, or treaties that affect or are between two parties—and generally two countries.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
The MTCR: An informal arrangement established in April 1987 by an association of supplier states concerned about the proliferation of missile equipment and technology relevant to missiles that are capable of carrying a payload over 500 kilograms over a 300-kilometer range. Though originally intended to restrict the proliferation of nuclear-capable missiles, the regime has been expanded to restrict the spread of unmanned aerial vehicles. For additional information, see the MTCR.
International Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missiles (ICOC)
ICOC: A legally non-binding arrangement that was launched with the objective of preventing and curbing the proliferation of ballistic missile systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction. States adhering to the ICOC agree not to assist ballistic missile programs in countries suspected of developing biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons, as well as to exhibit "restraint" in the development and testing of their own ballistic missiles. It eventually became the Hague Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missiles (HCOC). For additional information, see the HCOC.
New START
New START: A treaty between the United States and Russia on further limitations and reductions of strategic offensive weapons, signed on 8 April 2010, which entered into force on 5 February 2011. Under the New START provisions, the two sides have to reduce the number of deployed strategic warheads and the number of deployed strategic delivery vehicles within seven years of the treaty’s entry into force. The treaty’s verification measures are based on the earlier verification system created under START I. New START supersedes the Moscow Treaty, and its duration is 10 years, with an option of extension for up to five years. See entry for Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and Treaty of Moscow. For additional information, see New START.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
SLBM: A ballistic missile that is carried on and launched from a submarine.
Strategic Bomber
Strategic Bomber: A long-range aircraft designed to drop large amounts of explosive power—either conventional or nuclear—on enemy territory.
Deployment
The positioning of military forces – conventional and/or nuclear – in conjunction with military planning.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a military alliance that was formed in 1949 to help deter the Soviet Union from attacking Europe. The Alliance is based on the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington on 4 April 1949. The treaty originally created an alliance of 10 European and two North American independent states, but today NATO has 28 members who have committed to maintaining and developing their defense capabilities, to consulting on issues of mutual security concern, and to the principle of collective self-defense. NATO is also engaged in out-of-area security operations, most notably in Afghanistan, where Alliance forces operate alongside other non-NATO countries as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). For additional information, see NATO.
Silo
Hardened underground facility for housing and launching a ballistic missile.
Multiple Independently-targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV)
An offensive ballistic missile system with multiple warheads, each of which can strike a separate target and can be launched by a single booster rocket.
Deployment
The positioning of military forces – conventional and/or nuclear – in conjunction with military planning.
SSBN
Ship, Submersible, Ballistic, Nuclear: A hull classification for a submarine capable of launching a ballistic missile. The "N", or nuclear, refers to the ship's propulsion system. SSBN's are generally reserved for strategic vessels, as most submarine launched ballistic missiles carry nuclear payloads. A non-strategic vessel carries the designation SSN, or attack submarine.
Cruise missile
An unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. There are subsonic and supersonic cruise missiles currently deployed in conventional and nuclear arsenals, while conventional hypersonic cruise missiles are currently in development. These can be launched from the air, submarines, or the ground. Although they carry smaller payloads, travel at slower speeds, and cover lesser ranges than ballistic missiles, cruise missiles can be programmed to travel along customized flight paths and to evade missile defense systems.
Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM)
A missile designed to be launched from an aircraft and jet-engine powered throughout its flight. As with all cruise missiles, its range is a function of payload, propulsion, and fuel volume, and can thus vary greatly. Under the START I Treaty, the term "long-range ALCM" means an air-launched cruise missile with a range in excess of 600 kilometers.
Nuclear weapon
Nuclear weapon: A device that releases nuclear energy in an explosive manner as the result of nuclear chain reactions involving fission, or fission and fusion, of atomic nuclei. Such weapons are also sometimes referred to as atomic bombs (a fission-based weapon); or boosted fission weapons (a fission-based weapon deriving a slightly higher yield from a small fusion reaction); or hydrogen bombs/thermonuclear weapons (a weapon deriving a significant portion of its energy from fusion reactions).
Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
The PTBT: Also known as the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT), the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water prohibits nuclear weapons tests "or any other nuclear explosion" in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water. While the treaty does not ban tests underground, it does prohibit nuclear explosions in this environment if they cause "radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State under whose jurisdiction or control" the explosions were conducted. The treaty is of unlimited duration. For additional information, see the PTBT.
United Nations General Assembly
The UN General Assembly is the largest body of the United Nations. It includes all member states, but its resolutions are not legally binding. It is responsible for much of the work of the United Nations, including controlling finances, passing resolutions, and electing non-permanent members of the Security Council. It has two subsidiary bodies dealing particularly with security and disarmament: the UN General Assembly Committee on Disarmament and International Security (First Committee); and the UN Disarmament Commission. For additional information, see the UNGA.
Outer Space Treaty
The Outer Space Treaty: The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies prohibits the placement of Weapons of Mass Destruction in orbit around the earth, on the moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise in outer space. The treaty also stipulates that the exploration and use of outer space be carried out for the benefit and in the interest of all countries, and that the moon and other celestial bodies are to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes. It was opened for signature on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. For additional information, see the Outer Space Treaty.
Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I & II)
Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I & II): A series of discussions between the Soviet Union and the United States aimed at limiting missile systems and other strategic armaments. The first round of talks (SALT I) was held from 1969 to 1972, and concluded with the 20 May 1971 signing of the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and the Interim Agreement limiting strategic offensive arms. SALT II was held from 1972 to 1979. The SALT II Treaty was signed on 18 June 1979, but was not ratified by either country, although both committed to abiding by its limits. For additional information, see the entries for SALT I and SALT II.
Throw-weight
Throw-weight refers to the weight of the payload that a missile is capable of delivering, and is a measure of the destructive potential of a ballistic missile.
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty
The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, which was signed by the United States and the Soviet Union on May 26, 1972, and entered into force on October 3, 1972, constrained strategic missile defenses to a total of 200 launchers and interceptors per country, which were divided between two widely separated deployment areas. These restrictions were intended to prevent the establishment of a nationwide defense, and the creation of a base for deploying such a defense. The treaty was modified in 1974, reducing the permitted deployment areas to one per country. The United States withdrew from the ABM Treaty in 2002. For additional information, see the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I, II, & III)
Refers to negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, held between 1982 and 1993 to limit and reduce the numbers of strategic offensive nuclear weapons in each country’s nuclear arsenal. The talks culminated in the 1991 START I Treaty, which entered into force in December 1994, and the 1993 START II Treaty. Although START II was ratified by the two countries, it never entered into force. In 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin discussed the possibility of a START III treaty to make further weapons reductions, but negotiations resulted in a stalemate. Following the U.S. withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) in 2002, Russia declared START II void. START I expired on 5 December 2009, and was followed by the New START treaty. See entries for New START and the Trilateral Statement. For additional information, see the entries for START I, START II, and New START. 
Ratification
Ratification: The implementation of the formal process established by a country to legally bind its government to a treaty, such as approval by a parliament. In the United States, treaty ratification requires approval by the president after he or she has received the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Following ratification, a country submits the requisite legal instrument to the treaty’s depository governments Procedures to ratify a treaty follow its signature.

See entries for Entry into force and Signature.
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
A treaty between the United States and the former Soviet Union, signed on 8 December 1987, which entered into force on 1 June 1988. It aimed to eliminate and ban all ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with a range of between 300 and 3,400 miles (500 to 5,500 kilometers). The treaty required the United States and the Soviet Union to conduct inspections at each other's sites during the elimination of treaty-limited items (TLI). By May 1991, all intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles, launchers, related support equipment, and support structures were eliminated. For additional information, see the INF Treaty.
Entry into force
The moment at which all provisions of a treaty are legally binding on its parties. Every treaty specifies preconditions for its entry into force. For example, the NPT specified that it would enter into force after the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union (the Depository governments) and 40 other countries ratified the treaty, an event that occurred on March 5, 1970. See entries for Signature, Ratification.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
The MTCR: An informal arrangement established in April 1987 by an association of supplier states concerned about the proliferation of missile equipment and technology relevant to missiles that are capable of carrying a payload over 500 kilograms over a 300-kilometer range. Though originally intended to restrict the proliferation of nuclear-capable missiles, the regime has been expanded to restrict the spread of unmanned aerial vehicles. For additional information, see the MTCR.
G-8 Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons of Mass Destruction
Launched in 2002 at the G-8 Summit in Kananaskis, the G-8 Global Partnership is a multilateral initiative for financial commitments to implement and coordinate chemical, biological, and nuclear threat reduction activities on a global scale. Originally granted a ten-year lifespan and focused primarily on activities in the former Soviet Union, the Partnership has since been extended beyond 2012; it has also expanded its membership and scope of activities globally. For additional information, see the G-8 entry in the NTI Inventory.
Phased, Adaptive Approach (PAA)
An architecture for missile defense in Europe proposed by the U.S. Obama administration for countering the perceived growing ballistic missile threat from Iran.  The phased, adaptive approach, as envisioned, would use land-and-sea-based SM-3 interceptors and sophisticated sensors deployed in southern and northern Europe.  These systems could potentially provide Europe and the U.S. homeland with a mechanism for defense against the full range of Iranian ballistic missiles that can adapt appropriately as the threat evolves.  The approach would deploy this technology in phases as it continues to mature from 2011 to 2020.
Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)
SORT: Russian President Vladimir Putin and U.S. President George W. Bush signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty, also called the Treaty of Moscow on 24 May 2002. The treaty stated that both the United States and Russia would reduce the numbers of their deployed nuclear warheads to between 1700 and 2200 within the next ten years. It established a Bilateral Implementation Commission, scheduled to meet at least twice a year, to establish procedures to verify and assist reductions. The treaty was rendered obsolete by the signing of the New START treaty in 2010. For additional information, see SORT.
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
A treaty between the United States and the former Soviet Union, signed on 8 December 1987, which entered into force on 1 June 1988. It aimed to eliminate and ban all ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with a range of between 300 and 3,400 miles (500 to 5,500 kilometers). The treaty required the United States and the Soviet Union to conduct inspections at each other's sites during the elimination of treaty-limited items (TLI). By May 1991, all intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles, launchers, related support equipment, and support structures were eliminated. For additional information, see the INF Treaty.

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