Iran Chemical Overview
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Background
This page is part of the Iran Country Profile.
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Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has encountered chemical warfare (CW) on the battlefield since 1918.
Iranian troops and civilians suffered tens of thousands of casualties from Iraqi chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq War of 1980 to 1988. As a result, Iran has strongly opposed the use and possession of chemical weapons. Iran ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1997. Nevertheless, several Western governments have accused Iran of developing and maintaining its own arsenal of chemical weapons since it ratified the CWC. Although between 1997 and 2003, U.S. intelligence agencies accused Iran of maintaining a stockpile of chemical weapons, these assessments largely changed after 2003. No effort has been made to take advantage of the challenge inspection mechanisms provided by the CWC to investigate purported Iranian chemical facilities. Moreover, none of the allegations made regarding the stockpiling of CW agents can be verified using information available in the unclassified domain.
Assessing Iran’s CW capabilities is difficult—although there is an apparent wealth of information, very little of it constitutes original material. The greater part of published information on Iran’s CW programs consists of repackaged information from a limited number of sources. The tendency to fit new information into a pre-existing framework that presumes the existence of a covert offensive CW program introduces additional problems. Ultimately, all public assessments of Iran’s alleged CW program depend heavily upon information gathered from Iranian opposition groups and Western intelligence agencies. Doubts about the validity of information publicly released by Western intelligence agencies have increased since 2003 due to investigations that revealed selective reporting, the use of unreliable or biased sources, an unwillingness to emphasize uncertainty, and a failure to properly assess the veracity or reliability of available information. 1 Nonetheless, revelations since 2003 regarding the extent of Iran’s previously concealed civilian nuclear program do raise the question of whether Iran might indeed be hiding a CW program. To piece together an objective overview of allegations surrounding Iran and its CW capabilities, the following profile mines open source literature while taking into consideration the above-mentioned problems and limitations.
Capabilities
Iran has a sophisticated base for the development of a chemical warfare (CW) program that dates back to the Iran-Iraq War (1980 to 1988) – a conflict that gave Iran strong incentives for developing a robust chemical defense capability. Several unclassified allegations and reports from the 1990s until approximately 2003 suggested that Iran had developed an offensive CW program. Many of these claims described specific military capabilities related to agent stockpiles, delivery systems, and deployments that cannot be independently verified in open sources. 2
Instead, open source reports of Iranian transactions involving various dual-use materials have been interpreted as supporting claims for the existence of an offensive CW program. Iran has imported chemicals such as thiodiglycol and thionyl chloride that can be applied towards legitimate purposes such as dyes, textiles, and pesticides or could be diverted towards an illicit CW program. 3 In the mid-1990s, Iran also imported several tons of phosphorus pentasulfide, which is on the Australia Group’s watch list for controlled chemical precursors, but not on the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) Schedule lists. 4 Although this compound has several legitimate uses—including pesticide production (most notably malathion) and as an additive for lubricant oil—it is also a starting point for the production of V-group nerve agents. 5 6 Notably, U.S. intelligence estimates and State Department compliance reports between 2003 and 2010 do not list any specific CW agents possessed by Iran, and have removed all previous references to agent stockpiles or delivery systems. 7 These recent reports suggest that the U.S. intelligence community is either uncertain about or unwilling to publicly disclose the specifics of any Iranian offensive CW program.
History
1980 to 1988: Chemical Weapons and the Iran-Iraq War
The Iran-Iraq War of 1980 to 1988 prompted Iran’s involvement with chemical weapons. Beginning in 1983, Iran suffered the effects of increasingly effective Iraqi CW attacks, which initially involved blister agents (e.g. mustard gas), but later included nerve agents such as tabun and possibly sarin. 8 Estimates of the number of Iranian casualties from Iraqi CW use are not definitive, but the Iranian estimate is 60,000 casualties. 9
The weak international response, particularly by the United Nations, to Iraqi use of chemical weapons against Iranian forces left Iran increasingly bitter about what it perceived to be a double standard in the enforcement of international agreements. Many Iranian officials concluded that their country had to develop the ability to retaliate in kind to deter chemical weapons use. In a 1987 interview, the Iranian representative to the United Nations (UN) stated that “…if the Iraqi regime does not take any steps in putting an end to the crimes of the Iraqi regime, we will retaliate in kind, and in that case, we will certainly announce it.” 10
Others within the clerical Islamic regime publicly condemned any use of chemical weapons on moral grounds, calling them un-Islamic. 11 However, there has been official confirmation that Iran at one point pursued offensive CW capabilities. In November 1998, Iranian Ambassador Mohammad R. Alborzi, Director General of the Iranian Foreign Ministry, delivered a statement to the Conference of the States Parties (CSP) to the CWC in The Hague, The Netherlands. In his statement, he admitted for the first time that Iran had once possessed CW, in the waning years of the Iran-Iraq War. But he claimed that, “…following the establishment of [the] ceasefire, the decision to develop chemical weapons capabilities was reversed and the process was terminated.” 12
Some reports suggest that Iran may have employed those CW agents on a small scale during the 1980s war with Iraq; however, an intensive review of the open literature (including UN reports based on field investigations from that era) provides insufficient evidence to support this conclusion. 13 During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, U.S. forces discovered internal Iraqi intelligence reports that discussed Iranian use of CW agents against the Iraqis along with the capture of 141 CW mortar rounds, which were presented to the United Nations. According to the UN inspectors, the rounds’ storage containers tested positive for mustard gas, but tests on the contents of the munitions were inconclusive. 14 There are also unconfirmed allegations that Iran sent chemical munitions to Libya in exchange for Scud B ballistic missiles. Iraqi intelligence reports from the war cite Egyptian sources that claimed to have uncovered the deal. 15 CW munitions uncovered by Libyan rebels during the 2011 Libyan Civil War have reportedly been traced back to Iran. 16
1988 to 2003: Potential Chemical Warfare Capabilities
Although Iran admitted to previously pursuing an offensive CW capability—its initial report to the OPCW declared a single CW production facility—it has not provided any public accounting of the details of that program. Beyond the confirmation by OPCW inspectors that the facility was closed and demolished prior to entry into force of the CWC, little public information exists regarding Iran’s possible continued pursuit of CW capabilities. What evidence does exist must come from analysis of instances in which Iran imported bulk quantities of precursors for chemical warfare agents. According to Jane’s, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) allegedly exported dual-use chemical materials and technology to Iran during the 1980s. 17 The mustard gas precursor thiodiglycol was of particular interest to the Iranians. In 1989, U.S. authorities clamped down on the chemical company Alcolac International Inc., of Baltimore, Maryland, which illegally shipped almost 120 tons of thiodiglycol to Iran. 18
India is also heavily implicated in exports of CW materials to Iran. The State Trading Corporation of India conceded in 1989 that it had sold over 60 tons of the nerve agent precursor thionyl chloride to Iran, and a shipment of an additional 257 tons was planned. 19 A decade later, the press reported chemical warfare implications in a 1997 multi-million dollar deal that India cut with Iran to construct an advanced chemical plant near Tehran, at Qazvim. 20 India was also purportedly involved in a botched sale to Iran of phosphorous pentasulfide, a chemical that could be utilized in pesticides or in the nerve agent VX. In 1998, reports indicated that China successfully concluded a similar arrangement with Iran for the sale of 500 tons of phosphorus pentasulfide. 21
Other states have become involved in CW-related sales as well. In 1997, Nahum Manbar – an Israeli – was convicted of attempting to sell the technology and equipment necessary to produce mustard gas, as well as the knowledge necessary to produce tabun (a nerve gas), to Iran during the early 1990s. 22 Though it is unclear whether his attempted sale was successful, Manbar was sentenced to 15 years in prison. Several years after his sentencing, a former MI6 agent, Richard Tomlinson, published a book in which he claimed that Manbar was actually working on behalf of Mossad, Israel’s intelligence service. However, MI6, the CIA, and Mossad all deny his claims. 23
In the past, Jane’s and other sources alleged that Chinese companies were involved in sales of CW technology to Iran; as a result, several Chinese companies and individuals have faced U.S. sanctions. In 1995, the U.S. State Department announced sanctions against Asian-Ways, Ltd., World Co (Hong Kong) Ltd., and Mainway International Ltd. for supplying Iran with “nerve gas technology.” 24 According to U.S. press accounts citing a top secret CIA report dated October 2, 1996, China sold Iran nearly 400 metric tons of carbon disulfide, a precursor to riot control and nerve agents. 25 Despite these sales, there is no clear evidence that Iran has produced tear gas or other riot control agents. In 1997, the U.S. State Department sanctioned two additional Chinese companies for selling Iran CW-related precursors and equipment. 26 The U.S. State Department has also sanctioned several individuals, including Chinese national Qingchang (Q.C.) Chen, for allegedly supplying Iran with material linked to CW. 27
In 2000, the U.S. government passed the Iran Nonproliferation Act, followed in 2005 by extended guidelines that led to the renaming of the measure to the Iran and Syria Nonproliferation Act. Pursuant to this act, the United States has sanctioned numerous entities and individuals in several countries, particularly India and China, for the export of dual-use materials to Iran.
In 2000, the CIA estimated that Iran “[possessed] a stockpile of at least several thousand metric tons of weaponized and bulk agent.” 28 In 2002, a CIA unclassified report claimed that Iran’s stockpile of CW agents reportedly included blister, blood, and choking agents, and possibly nerve agents. 29 According to several observers, Iran allegedly developed this capability with aid from Western individuals and companies, as well as from other nations, such as India and China. 30
2003 to the Present: Varying Assessments
While Iran’s history of possible CW-related imports suggests a possible offensive chemical weapons program, since 2003 U.S. intelligence assessments have refrained from definitive conclusions. Prior to that date, intelligence estimates included specific assessments of Iran’s CW program, including the agents Iran allegedly stockpiled. The last of these more detailed reports, issued in 2003, stated that Iran “may have already stockpiled blister, blood, choking, and possibly nerve agents-and the bombs and artillery shells to deliver them-which it previously had manufactured.” 31
In 2004, however, the Director of National Intelligence stated that “Iran is a party to the CWC. Nevertheless, during the reporting period it continued to seek production technology, training, and expertise from foreign entities that could further Tehran’s efforts to achieve an indigenous capability to produce nerve agents.” 32 In 2007, the U.S. intelligence community stated that: “Iran maintains the capability to produce CW agent in times of need and conducts research that may have offensive applications.” 33 Gone was the specificity that had been the hallmark of past U.S. intelligence assessments, suggesting at a minimum that the threat level was being reconsidered. 34 Subsequent reports have followed this general pattern. A 2011 CIA report of a similar nature assessed that “Tehran continues to seek dual-use technologies that could advance its capability to produce CW agents.” 35 It furthermore judged that “Iran is capable of weaponizing CW agents in a variety of delivery systems,” but gave not indication that Iran had done so. 36
Iran has also apparently sought materials for a chemical weapons defense capability, which the CWC allows. In 1997 China sold Iran 40,000 barrels of calcium-hypochlorite, a chemical and biological decontaminating agent. 37 Iran also reportedly purchased respirators from Spain, protective gear from South Korea, and atropine auto-injectors from the Netherlands. 38
Whether or not Iran has a stockpile of poison gas, Iran has extensive weaponry that could be adapted to deliver CW agents. In 1996, Jane’s cited various reports that Iran had “developed 155mm artillery shells, mortar rounds, aerial bombs for chemical fill, and possibly chemical warheads for Scuds.” 39 Jane’s and other news outlets circulated reports that Iran utilized mines as delivery systems for chemical agents. 40 Iran’s Shahab missile is also believed to be capable of carrying chemical warheads. 41 Similarly, Iran has been developing unmanned aerial vehicles, which some experts claim could be used for delivery of chemical or biological agents. 42
Iran also reportedly possesses a number of cruise missiles such as the Kh-55 Granat, which are well-suited to deliver chemical or biological warheads. Received from Ukraine in approximately 2001, these cruise missiles could conceivably be configured for the delivery of CW agents, but experts debate whether Iran has the means to launch the actual missiles. 43 The September 2007 claims from Jane’s and other international news sources that a CW-related explosion occurred at a Syrian military facility when Iranian and Syrian engineers attempted to fit a chemical warhead onto a Scud missile have been disputed. 44 There are some accusations that cooperation between Iran and the Syrian government on chemical weapons continued through the Syrian Civil War. In January 2012, the Turkish government claimed to have halted a convoy of Iranian trucks en route to Syria because of suspicions that they carried military equipment. 45 Soon after the incident, former British Prime Minister David Cameron charged Iran with providing the Syrian regime with weapons and stated “there have been interceptions of some shipments by Turkey which are particularly interesting.” 46 Several Israeli sources went further, contending that the convoy was carrying CW material in addition to conventional weapons. They based their accusations on a report by the Turkish newspaper Taraf, which was shut down by the Turkish government after the attempted coup in 2016. 47 Iran has strongly rejected the claims that it is sending any weapons to Syria. 48
Current Status
Officially, Iran has consistently denied possession of chemical weapons. After the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1540 in April 2004, Iran continued to maintain that it did not possess such weapons. In a note to the UN Security Council in 2006 regarding its implementation of Resolution 1540, Iran’s representatives stated that “the Islamic Republic of Iran, as a State party to all international legal instruments banning WMD, does not possess WMD and considers these kinds of weapons as inhumane, immoral, illegal, and against its very basic principles.” 49 Within the framework of the CWC and under the auspices of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Iran has hosted training sessions on the medical aspects of chemical warfare. 50 In the international arena, Iran consistently points to its adherence to the CWC and denies any secret CW program.
Iran has continued to import potential CW agent precursors; however, since these chemicals have legitimate civilian applications, such imports are not conclusive evidence that Iran is developing or maintaining a CW program. Between 1997 and 2013, the United States sanctioned a variety of international companies in relation to Iran’s WMD programs, including the Chinese firms Zibo Chemet Equipment Company, Liyand Chemical Equipment Company, and the Nanjing Chemical Industries Group. 51 According to the U.S. State Department, these companies have either “engaged in chemical weapons proliferation” 52 or in “activities…having the potential to make a material contribution to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) or cruise or ballistic missile systems.” 53 Though the specific reason for the sanctions against Zibo Chemet, for example, is unclear, the company is “a major manufacturer of gas-lined chemical equipment.” 54 Glass-lined, corrosion-resistant equipment was often employed in the production of CW agents, and at one time its use in the chemical industry was uncommon. Now, it is an increasingly important component in facilities for the production of pesticides and fertilizers using modern processes. Similar statements can be made concerning the other Chinese firms;—the equipment that they manufacture has dual-use civilian applications as well.
Despite a lack of evidence suggesting CW-related activities, many Western states view ongoing efforts to increase the size and sophistication of the Iranian chemical industry with suspicion. Past accusations, however, should be balanced against the dearth of reliable open source information, more recent and less definitive intelligence assessments, and the fact that CWC inspections of Iranian facilities have not revealed any evidence of an illicit CW program. Furthermore, the Congressional Research Service deems it unlikely that Iran would transfer any chemical or biological weapons to non-state actors for fear of international backlash. 55
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Glossary
- Chemical Weapon (CW)
- The CW: The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons defines a chemical weapon as any of the following: 1) a toxic chemical or its precursors; 2) a munition specifically designed to deliver a toxic chemical; or 3) any equipment specifically designed for use with toxic chemicals or munitions. Toxic chemical agents are gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical substances that use their toxic properties to cause death or severe harm to humans, animals, and/or plants. Chemical weapons include blister, nerve, choking, and blood agents, as well as non-lethal incapacitating agents and riot-control agents. Historically, chemical weapons have been the most widely used and widely proliferated weapon of mass destruction.
- Ratification
- Ratification: The implementation of the formal process established by a country to legally bind its government to a treaty, such as approval by a parliament. In the United States, treaty ratification requires approval by the president after he or she has received the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Following ratification, a country submits the requisite legal instrument to the treaty’s depository governments Procedures to ratify a treaty follow its signature.
See entries for Entry into force and Signature. - Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
- The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) requires each state party to declare and destroy all the chemical weapons (CW) and CW production facilities it possesses, or that are located in any place under its jurisdiction or control, as well as any CW it abandoned on the territory of another state. The CWC was opened for signature on 13 January 1993, and entered into force on 29 April 1997. For additional information, see the CWC.
- Offensive (research, weapon)
- Meant for use in instigating an attack, as opposed to defending against an attack.
- Deployment
- The positioning of military forces – conventional and/or nuclear – in conjunction with military planning.
- Dual-use item
- An item that has both civilian and military applications. For example, many of the precursor chemicals used in the manufacture of chemical weapons have legitimate civilian industrial uses, such as the production of pesticides or ink for ballpoint pens.
- Australia Group (AG)
- Australia Group (AG): Established in 1985 to limit the spread of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) through export controls on chemical precursors, equipment, agents, and organisms. For additional information, see the Australia Group.
- Chemical Agent Precursor
- Any chemical reactant which takes part at any stage in the production by whatever method of a chemical agent. This includes any key component of a binary or multi-component chemical system. Common precursors to toxic chemicals are listed alongside the agents in the OPCW Schedules of Chemicals. Many precursors controlled through nonproliferation initiatives also have legitimate commercial uses.
- Nerve agent
- A nerve agent is a chemical weapon that attacks the human nervous system, leading to uncontrolled nerve cell excitation and muscle contraction. Specifically, nerve agents block the enzyme cholinesterease, so acetylcholine builds up in the nerve junction and the neuron cannot return to the rest state. Nerve agents include the G-series nerve agents (soman, sarin, tabun, and GF) synthesized by Germany during and after World War II; the more toxic V-series nerve agents (VX, VE, VM, VG, VR) discovered by the United Kingdom during the 1950s; and the reportedly even more toxic Novichok agents, developed by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1990. The development of both the G-series and V-series nerve agents occurred alongside pesticide development.
- Blister agent
- Blister agents (or vesicants) are chemical agents that cause victims to develop burns or blisters (“vesicles”) on their skin, as well as eyes, lungs, and airway irritation. Blister agents include mustard, lewisite, and phosgene, and are usually dispersed as a liquid or vapor. Although not usually fatal, exposure can result in severe blistering and blindness. Death, if it occurs, results from neurological factors or massive airway debilitation.
- Mustard (HD)
- Mustard is a blister agent, or vesicant. The term mustard gas typically refers to sulfur mustard (HD), despite HD being neither a mustard nor a gas. Sulfur mustard gained notoriety during World War I for causing more casualties than all of the other chemical agents combined. Victims develop painful blisters on their skin, as well as lung and eye irritation leading to potential pulmonary edema and blindness. However, mustard exposure is usually not fatal. A liquid at room temperature, sulfur mustard has been delivered using artillery shells and aerial bombs. HD is closely related to the nitrogen mustards (HN-1, HN-2, HN—3).
- Tabun (GA)
- Tabun (GA): A nerve agent, tabun was the first of the nerve agents discovered in Germany in the 1930s. One of the G-series nerve agents, Nazi Germany produced large quantities of tabun but never used it on the battlefield. Tabun causes uncontrollable nerve excitation and muscle contraction. Ultimately, tabun victims suffer death by suffocation. As with other nerve agents, tabun can cause death within minutes. Tabun is much less volatile than sarin (GB) and soman (GD), but also less toxic.
- Sarin (GB)
- Sarin (GB): A nerve agent, sarin causes uncontrollable nerve cell excitation and muscle contraction. Ultimately, sarin victims suffer death by suffocation. As with other nerve agents, sarin can cause death within minutes. Sarin vapor is about ten times less toxic than VX vapor, but 25 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide. Discovered while attempting to produce more potent pesticides, sarin is the most toxic of the four G-series nerve agents developed by Germany during World War II. Germany never used sarin during the war. However, Iraq may have used sarin during the Iran-Iraq War, and Aum Shinrikyo is known to have used low-quality sarin during its attack on the Tokyo subway system that killed 12 people and injured hundreds.
- Deterrence
- The actions of a state or group of states to dissuade a potential adversary from initiating an attack or conflict through the credible threat of retaliation. To be effective, a deterrence strategy should demonstrate to an adversary that the costs of an attack would outweigh any potential gains. See entries for Extended deterrence and nuclear deterrence.
- Scud
- Scud is the designation for a series of short-range ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union in the 1950s and transferred to many other countries. Most theater ballistic missiles developed and deployed in countries of proliferation concern, for example Iran and North Korea, are based on the Scud design.
- Ballistic missile
- A delivery vehicle powered by a liquid or solid fueled rocket that primarily travels in a ballistic (free-fall) trajectory. The flight of a ballistic missile includes three phases: 1) boost phase, where the rocket generates thrust to launch the missile into flight; 2) midcourse phase, where the missile coasts in an arc under the influence of gravity; and 3) terminal phase, in which the missile descends towards its target. Ballistic missiles can be characterized by three key parameters - range, payload, and Circular Error Probable (CEP), or targeting precision. Ballistic missiles are primarily intended for use against ground targets.
- Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
- The OPCW: Based in The Hague, the Netherlands, the OPCW is responsible for implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). All countries ratifying the CWC become state parties to the CWC, and make up the membership of the OPCW. The OPCW meets annually, and in special sessions when necessary. For additional information, see the OPCW.
- Entry into force
- The moment at which all provisions of a treaty are legally binding on its parties. Every treaty specifies preconditions for its entry into force. For example, the NPT specified that it would enter into force after the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union (the Depository governments) and 40 other countries ratified the treaty, an event that occurred on March 5, 1970. See entries for Signature, Ratification.
- VX
- VX: The most toxic of the V-series nerve agents, VX was developed after the discovery of VE in the United Kingdom. Like other nerve agents, VX causes uncontrollable nerve excitation and muscle excitation. Ultimately, VX victims suffer death by suffocation. VX is an oily, amber-colored, odorless liquid.
- Sanctions
- Punitive measures, for example economic in nature, implemented in response to a state's violation of its international obligations.
- Lachrymator
- A lachrymator is a chemical agent that causes victims to produce tears from the eyes. Also known as “tear gas,” although many are not gaseous, lachrymators were among the first chemical agents used in combat during World War I, and are still used as riot-control agents. Examples include CS.
- Blood agent
- Blood agents are chemical agents that enter the victim’s blood and disrupt the body’s use of oxygen. Arsenic-based blood agents do so by causing red blood cells to burst, and cyanide-based blood agents do so by disrupting cellular processing of oxygen. Arsine, cyanogen chloride (CK), and hydrogen cyanide (AC) are colorless gasses, while sodium cyanide (NaCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN) are crystalline. Hydrogen cyanide (CK) was used as a genocidal agent by Nazi Germany, and may have also been used by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War and against the Kurdish city of Halabja. At high doses, death from cyanide poisoning occurs within minutes.
- Choking agent
- Choking agent: A chemical weapon which attacks lung tissue when inhaled, leading to respiratory failure. Choking agents cannot be absorbed through the skin and generally do not cause external injuries. Examples include chlorine and phosgene.
- Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
- UAV: Remotely piloted or self-piloted aircraft that can take on various intelligence or combat roles such as reconnaissance or targeted missiles strikes. The rapid proliferation of UAVs has raised concerns that they might serve as a delivery vehicle for a terrorist strike involving WMD.
- Cruise missile
- An unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path. There are subsonic and supersonic cruise missiles currently deployed in conventional and nuclear arsenals, while conventional hypersonic cruise missiles are currently in development. These can be launched from the air, submarines, or the ground. Although they carry smaller payloads, travel at slower speeds, and cover lesser ranges than ballistic missiles, cruise missiles can be programmed to travel along customized flight paths and to evade missile defense systems.
- UNSC Resolution 1540
- Resolution 1540 was passed by the UN Security Council in April 2004, calling on all states to refrain from supporting, by any means, non-state actors who attempt to acquire, use, or transfer chemical, biological or nuclear weapons or their delivery systems. The resolution also called for a Committee to report on the progress of the resolution, asking states to submit reports on steps taken towards conforming to the resolution. In April 2011, the Security Council voted to extend the mandate of the 1540 Committee for an additional 10 years.
- United Nations Security Council
- United Nations Security Council: Under the United Nations Charter, the Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. The Council consists of fifteen members, five of which—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—are permanent members. The other ten members are elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The five permanent members possess veto powers. For additional information, see the UNSC.
- WMD (weapons of mass destruction)
- WMD: Typically refers to nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons, though there is some debate as to whether chemical weapons qualify as weapons of “mass destruction.”
Sources
- The Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction: Report to the President of the United States (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 31 March 2005).
- See, for example, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1995); and Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, A New Challenge After the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, 28 January 1993.
- Sanjoy Hazarika, "India Says It Sold Iran a Chemical Used in Poison Gas," The New York Times, 1 July 1989, p. 1.
- Jane's, "Features: Iran's Chem-Bio Programmes," and Con Coughlin, "China Helps Iran to Make Nerve Gas," London Daily Telegraph, 24 May 1998, p. 1.
- U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction, OTA-BP-ISC-115 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1993).
- Gerhard Bettermann, Werner Krause, Gerhard Riess, Thomas Hoffman, "Phosphorous Compounds, Inorganic," in Ulmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2000).
- See, for example: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and disarmament Agreements and Commitments, July 2014; and Deputy Director of National Intelligence for Analysis, "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions Covering 1 January to 31 December 2010," accessed 30 June 2011, www.dni.gov.
- Briefly, on chemical weapons use during the 1980s Iran-Iran War, Victor A. Utgoff, The Challenge of Chemical Weapons: An American Perspective (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), 80-86. At length on Iraqi use of chemical weapons during this conflict, Gordon M. Burke and Charles C. Flowerree, International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 31-151.
- Javed Ali, "Chemical Weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A Case Study in Noncompliance," The Nonproliferation Review, Spring 2001, www.nonproliferation.org.
- Iranian diplomat was Rajai'e Korassani, as quoted in "Envoy to UN interviewed on Chemical Weapons Issues," Tehran Domestic Service in Persian, 22 April 1987, translated in FBIS-SAS-87-078, 23 April 1987, p. 11.
- Ali, "Chemical Weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A Case Study in Noncompliance," Dilip Hiro, The Longest War: The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (USA: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc., 1991) and Peter Lavoy, et. al., Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Will Use Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons (New York: Cornell University Press, 2000).
- Itamar Eichner, "Iran Admits to Possessing Chemical Weapons," Yedi'ot Aharonot, 20 November 1998; FBIS Document FTS19981120000618, 20 November 1998; "Iran Pledges No Chemical Weapons Production," Agence France Presse, 17 November 1998; Mohammad R. Alborzi, "Statement to the Third Session of the Conference of the States Parties of the Chemical Weapons Convention," 16-20 November 2000.
- U.S. Department of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response, 25 November 1997, www.defenselink.mil.
- Michael Eisenstadt, “What Iran’s Chemical Past Tells Us About Its Nuclear Future,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Research Note 17 (April 2014), p. 1-3; R. Jeffrey Smith, Joby Warrick, and Colum Lynch, “Iran May Have Sent Libya Shells for Chemical Weapons,” The Washington Post, 20 November 2011, www.washingtonpost.com.
- US Department of Defense, Conflict Records Research Center, "General Military Intelligence Directorate Memos on Iran’s Chemical Weapons Capability and Alleged Use," US Department of Defense, CRRC, October 1987-September 1988, http://crrc.dodlive.mil, p. 24.
- R. Jeffrey Smith, Joby Warrick, and Colum Lynch, “Iran May Have Sent Libya Shells for Chemical Weapons,” Washington Post, 20 November 2011, www.washingtonpost.com; Department of Defense, Conflict Records Research Center, "General Military Intelligence Directorate Memos on Iran’s Chemical Weapons Capability and Alleged Use," US Department of Defense, CRRC, October 1987-September 1988, http://crrc.dodlive.mil, p. 24.
- "Features: Iran's Chem-Bio Programmes," Jane's Chem-Bio Web, 20 September 2005, www.andyoppenheimer.com.
- Jonathan B. Tucker, "Trafficking Networks for Chemical Weapons Precursors: Lessons from the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s," Center for Nonproliferation Studies, November 2008, 10-22.
- Sanjoy Hazarika, "India Says It Sold Iran a Chemical Used in Poison Gas," The New York Times,1 July 1989, p. 1.
- Con Coughlin Chief, "Iran in Secret Chemical Weapons Deal with India," Sunday Telegraph, 24 June 1996.
- Jane's, "Features: Iran's Chem-Bio Programmes," and Con Coughlin, "China Helps Iran to Make Nerve Gas," London Daily Telegraph, 24 May 1998, p. 1.
- Joel Greenberg, "Israeli Linked to Iran Arms Ordered Jailed," The New York Times, 18 April 1997, www.nytimes.com; Joel Greenberg, "Israeli Held in Iran Traffic in Nerve Gas," New York Times, 7 May 1997, www.nytimes.com.
- Ronen Bergman, The Secret War with Iran: The 30-Year Struggle for Control of a 'Rogue' State, trans. Ronnie Hope (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), 301-315.
- Nicholas Ionides, Untitled, South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), 27 April 1995, p. 2.
- Bill Gertz, "China Sold Iran Missile Technology," Washington Times, 21 November 1996, p. 1.
- "U.S. Imposes CW Sanctions Against Chinese Entities, Statement by State Department Spokesman Nicholas Burns," Globalsecurity.org, 22 May 1997.
- Vann H. Van Diepen (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Nine Foreign Entities, Including a Ban on U.S. Government Procurement, and Removal of Penalties from One Entity [Public Notice 4946]," Federal Register Vol. 70, No. 1, (3 January 2005): 133.
- "Lauder Statement to Senate Committee on Foreign Relations," Central Intelligence Agency, 5 October 2000, www.cia.gov.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January through 30 June 2002," Central Intelligence Agency, www.cia.gov.
- Jonathan B. Tucker, "Trafficking Networks for Chemical Weapons Precursors: Lessons from the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s," Center for Nonproliferation Studies, November 2008, www.nonproliferation.org; Sharon Squassoni, "India and Iran: WMD Proliferation Activities," CRS Report for Congress, 8 November 2006, fpc.state.gov; "Iran Denies Getting Help From China on Weapons," New York Times, 25 May 1997, www.nytimes.com.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 July - 31 December 2003," Central Intelligence Agency, www.cia.gov.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January - 31 December 2004," Director of National Intelligence, http://dni.gov. See also, "Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January - 31 December 2005," Director of National Intelligence, www.dni.gov.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, Covering 1 January - 31 December 2007," Director of National Intelligence, http://dni.gov.
- Also see Markus Binder, "Iran's First-Generation Chemical Weapons Evaporate, as Certainty Declines in U.S. Intelligence Reports," WMD Insights, February 2008, www.wmdinsights.com.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January - 31 December 2011," Director of National Intelligence, www.dni.gov.
- "Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January - 31 December 2011," Director of National Intelligence, www.dni.gov.
- Robert Karniol, "China Supplied Iran with Decontamination Agent," Jane's Defence Weekly, Vol 27, No. 17, p. 17.
- Robert Karniol, "China Supplied Iran with Decontamination Agent," Jane's Defence Weekly, Vol 27, No. 17, p. 17.
- Barbara Starr, "Iran Has Vast Stockpiles of CW Agents, Says CIA," Jane's Defence Weekly, 14 August 1996, 3.
- Bill Gertz, "China Aided Iran Chemical Arms," Washington Times, 30 October 1997, p. 1; Andrew Rathmell, "Iran's Weapons of Mass Destruction," Jane's Intelligence Review - Special Report No. 6, June 1995, p. 17.
- Bill Gertz, "Iran Tests Medium-Range Missile," Washington Times, 23 July 1998, p. 1; Bill Gertz, "Teheran Increases Range on Missiles," Washington Times, 22 September 1999.
- Milton Hoenig, "Hezbollah and the Use of Drones as a Weapon of Terrorism," Federation of American Scientists, Public Interest Report Vol. 67, No. 2 (Spring 2014), www.fas.org.
- Paul Kerr, "Ukraine Admits Missile Transfers," Arms Control Today, Vol 35 (5), May 2005, 41, www.armscontrol.org; Anthony H. Cordesman and Adam C. Seitz, "Iranian Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Birth of a Regional Nuclear Arms Race?" (Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International, 2009) 131-132.
- James Hider and Michael Evans, "Blast at Secret Syrian Missile Site Kills Dozens," Times Online, 20 September 2007, www.timesonline.co.uk.
- "Syria: Arab League mission in crisis - Wednesday 11 January," The Guardian, 11 January 2012, www.theguardian.com; Ivan Watson and Yesim Comert, "Iran denies shipping weapons to Syria through Turkey," CNN, 14 January 2012, www.cnn.com.
- Damien McElroy, "David Cameron accuses Iran of supplying Syria weapons," The Telegraph, 18 January 2012, www.telegraph.co.uk.
- "Iran transporting weapons to Syria through Turkey," Jerusalem Post, 21 January 2012, www.jpost.com; "Taraf ve Zaman'ın yanı sıra 16 televizyon kanalı da kapatıldı," CNN Turk, 28 July 2016, www.cnnturk.com.
- Ivan Watson and Yesim Comert, "Iran denies shipping weapons to Syria through Turkey," CNN, 14 January 2012, www.cnn.com; "Iran rejects French charge it is sending arms to Syria," The Telegraph, 17 January 2012, www.telegraph.co.uk.
- United Nations Security Council, "Note Verbale Dated 14 February 2006 from the Permanent Mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations Addressed to the Chairman of the Committee," 18 February 2006, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org.
- Claus-Peter Polster, "Ninth International Course on Medical Defence Against Chemical Weapons," Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons," 9 November 2008, www.opcw.org.
- Kenneth Katzman, "Iran Sanctions," Congressional Research Service, 18 August 2009, http://assets.opencrs.com; Thomas E. McNamara (US Department of State), "Imposition of Chemical and Biological Weapons Proliferation Sanctions on Foreign Entities and Persons [Public Notice 2551]," Federal Register Vol. 62, No. 99, (22 May 1997): 28304; John S. Wolf (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Armenian, Chinese, and Moldovan Entities, Including Ban on U.S. Government Procurement [Public Notice 4020]," Federal Register Vol. 67, No. 95, (16 May 2002): 34983-34984; Andrew K. Semmel (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Chinese and North Korean Entities, Including Ban on U.S. Government Procurement [Public Notice 4392]," Federal Register Vol. 68, No. 128, (3 July 2003): 40011-40012; Vann H. Van Diepen (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Nine Foreign Entities, Including a Ban on U.S. Government Procurement, and Removal of Penalties from One Entity [Public Notice 4946]," Federal Register Vol. 70, No. 1, (3 January 2005): 133; Thomas M. Countryman (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Foreign Persons, Including a Ban on U.S. Government Procurement [Public Notice 7741]," Federal Register Vol. 76, No. 248, (27 December 2011): 81004-81005.
- Zibo Chemet Equipment Company, "About," www.chemet.net; Charles R. Smith, "Chinese Firms Sanctioned," Newsmax, 8 January 2007, http://archive.newsmax.com.
- Thomas E. McNamara (US Department of State), "Imposition of Chemical and Biological Weapons Proliferation Sanctions on Foreign Entities and Persons [Public Notice 2551]," Federal Register Vol. 62, No. 99, (22 May 1997): 28304.
- Vann H. Van Diepen (US Department of State), "Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Nine Foreign Entities, Including a Ban on U.S. Government Procurement, and Removal of Penalties from One Entity [Public Notice 4946]," Federal Register Vol. 70, No. 1, (3 January 2005): 133.
- Kenneth Katzman, “Iran’s Foreign and Defense Policies,” Congressional Research Service, 8 October 2019.www.fas.org